Dear colleagues,

One of the most controversial issues in Special Education is inclusion. Inclusion can be viewed as a movement from the establishment of segregated institutions to the placement of individuals with disabilities in general education classrooms and as full participants in the mainstream of society. Amid the accusations of inequality, the need for increased sensitivity to the evolving diverse demography of citizens, and the demand for greater accountability in academic outcomes, there has been a call for restructured educational institutions to address these challenges and promote equity and equal opportunity. As discussed in this Special Issue, there is a need to understand and appreciate the trajectory from isolation to integration to inclusion in the emerging paradigm of disability rights.

Whether the path to inclusion represents unequivocal progress or is even more effective than previous educational structures is explored in this Special Issue. To minimize overgeneralizations and oversimplifications, it is critical to discuss the effects of inclusion on various groups of individuals with specific disabilities. There is no doubt that the generation of this type of knowledge is challenging—or, as some might argue, not actually possible, given the wide range of diverse factors. That this endeavor is formidable should demonstrate the complexity of understanding inclusion and explain, in part, why there might not be a widespread consensus. Not all specific groups with disabilities and not all aspects of inclusion are covered; thus, the body of perspectives in this small volume should be viewed with caution—but also, should serve as a catalyst for further research and dialogue.

The inclusion movement engendered a number of important and somewhat controversial constructs, several of which are discussed in this Special Issue. These include access to the general education curriculum, least restrictive environment, response to intervention, and disability rights. Others that are also pertinent, but perhaps no less controversial, include co-teaching, differentiated instruction, and peer-supported arrangements. Whether any practice or concept is effective or viable requires the examination of an omnipresent phrase in a number of fields: evidence-based practice.

It is hoped that this volume contributes to a greater understanding of inclusion, given its coverage of paradigms, historical perspectives, evidence-based practices, and the benefits and barriers with respect to selected groups of individuals with disabilities. A deeper understanding of the construct of disability studies should provide insights into the evolution of disability rights and the need to continue to empower individuals. Some educators might argue that we have a limited knowledge about inclusion—that is, we have hit a brick wall; others may argue to the contrary. The importance of continuing this dialogue has been asserted not too long ago and is still relevant today (Allan & See, 2008):

Inclusive education is a political imperative and ques­tions of who gets an education and the character of that education compared with others cannot be con­strued as apolitical. Closing down the discussion or maintaining the barricades in order to feel more confi­dent about one’s dogma is not constructive. The tech­nical and political need not always be antithetical. We would argue that an open and respectful conver­sation about ideology, choices and the impact of these choices on the subjects and products of the research is timely. (p. 99)

Prof. Dr. Peter V. Paul
Guest Editor

Contents of the Special Issue

1. Inclusion Paradigms and Perspectives

This article provides a few perspectives on the construct of inclusion in education and society. After comparing inclusion to descriptions of mainstreaming, it is argued that much of the research and discussion on inclusion can be categorized into one of two broad, often conflicting, paradigms: social justice and evaluation of effectiveness. There is ongoing debate on the meaning of the phrase “Least Restrictive Environment” (LRE), which is often assumed to be the general education classroom, involving interactions with peers without a disability.  There is also debate on the implications of “developmental similarity”, which has influenced the inclusion movement as well as the notion of “access to the general education curriculum”.  Some of the information and issues presented in this introductory article are addressed further in other articles in this Special Issue.

2. Inclusion and Special Education

This article provides a few historical perspectives on reform movements in Special Education. These events led to the development and refinement of Special Education laws and, eventually, injected concepts such as the Least Restrictive Environment, Individual Education Plan, and Access to the General Education Curriculum into the mental frameworks of theorists, researchers, and educators. It is instructive to trace the evolutionary trajectory from educational structures labeled as isolation (e.g., institutions) to integration to mainstreaming to inclusion to what some have referred to as empowerment/self determination, which is akin to the construct of disability rights. It might be that education is an enterprise that examines questions and ideas periodically with the hope of producing new knowledge or insights, leading to the improvement of the welfare of individuals. Whether this has occurred for individuals with disabilities in an open question. The article concludes with recommendations for further dialogue.

3. Inclusion and Evidence-Based Practices

It is imperative to delineate effective inclusive education practices. It might be, as some educators and researchers have suggested, that such practices that are effective in self-contained or segregated classrooms for children with disabilities can also be applied to inclusive classrooms. Examples include differentiated instruction and universal design for learning. In inclusive classrooms, there are other practices that have been utilized, such as co-teaching, peer-supported arrangements, cooperative learning groups, and even a concept-labeled response to intervention/instruction. The focus of this article is on evidence-based or effective practices. After discussing the construct of evidence-based practices, the article provides a synthesis of research. Some of the findings in this article may overlap with the discussion of effective practices in other articles in this Special Issue. The article concludes with recommendations for further dialogue.

4. Inclusion and d/Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students

This articles covers theory and research on inclusion for d/Deaf and hard-of-hearing students. After providing a description of d/Deaf and hard of hearing, the research is summarized with respect to the development of language, literacy, social, and academic achievement. It is often asserted that language and communication are major factors that impact the successful inclusion of these students. It is argued that a considerable amount of controversy in this area is due to variables such as inadequate descriptions of demography and the lack of other quality indicators (e.g., achievement information, description of measurements). The article discusses the availability of evidence-based or effective practices and concludes with recommendations for further dialogue.

5. Inclusion and Students with Visual Impairment

There has been an increase in the number of students who are blind or have low vision in general education classrooms. There are lingering concerns with the use of technology, teacher qualifications, the structure and pace of classroom instruction and activities, and access to the general education curriculum. After providing a few critical demographics, the article focuses on the variety of research directions on inclusion, from arbitrarily selected perspectives such as mental health, self-esteem, and social support to topics such as paraeducators and academic achievement. After providing a synthesis of the salient findings, the article proffers practices for improving the inclusion of these students. The article ends with recommendations for further dialogue.

6. Inclusion and Students with Language or Learning Disabilities

Students in this disability category may comprise those who have mild (or mild to moderate) disabilities, specific learning disabilities, and those with speech and language disorders or impairments. These selected groups are often labeled as high-incidence disabilities in that they have the largest percentage of students, aged 6 to 21, who receive special education services. It is difficult, albeit critical, to describe the characteristics of these children—which is necessary for understanding research and instructional implications. This article summarizes the research on these groups of students, recognizing that there may be overlaps (i.e., students may be in one or more groups). The article concludes with recommendations for further dialogue.

7. Inclusion and Students with Cognitive/Intellectual, Developmental, or Emotional Disabilities

From one perspective, this article covers individuals who not only have some of the most intense needs, but also might present major challenges to be included in the general education environment. From another perspective, a few of the most vociferous, radical supporters of full inclusion have been researchers and educators who work with individuals with cognitive/intellectual or developmental disabilities. Of course, there are others who argue that full inclusion is not appropriate for many members of these groups. Similar to other disability groups that contain children with complex needs, it is challenging to provide general attributes of children in this broad category. This article summarizes the research and provides a list of salient evidence-based or effective practices for students with moderate to intensive disabilities, emotional or behavior disorders, or autism spectrum disorders. The article concludes with recommendations for further dialogue.

8. Inclusion and Effects on Others

A considerable amount of attention has been devoted to perspectives and research on inclusion for children with disabilities. However, there have been documented effects of inclusion on children without disabilities, that is, the so-called typical peers. These effects may include academic and social achievement, attitudes toward their peers with disabilities, and the quality and quantity of instructional time and activities. There is also research on the perspectives of general educators and administrators and even parents/caretakers of children with or without disabilities. Some educators and researchers have hypothesized that educational inclusion may have pervasive effects on the larger society. After synthesizing the major findings in selected areas, the article ends with recommendations for further dialogue.

9. Inclusion and Disability Studies

There has been substantial tension between Special Education and Disability Studies.  Disability Studies is a relatively new interdisciplinary academic field. It attempts to describe and understand the portrayal of individuals with disabilities in history, literature, philosophy, and other disciplines. Disability Studies—and, consequently, disability theory—seems to follow the development of other areas, such as feminist and critical race, gender, and queer studies. It can be argued that Disability Studies has influenced perspectives on inclusion, moving the debate to the arena of empowerment/self-determination and highlighting the construct of disability rights. This article provides a brief overview of the development and tenets of this field and presents some of the ways it differs from Special Education as well as the few endeavors to “bridge the divide”. The article concludes with recommendations for further dialogue.

10. Conclusion: Reflections and Directions

This concluding article provides final reflections and directions for further dialogue and inquiry on the various controversial topics discussed in this Special Issue. The article provides a commentary on the contributors’ recommendations and conclusions. The article ends with recommendations for further dialogue.

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• cognitive/intellectual disabilities
• d/Deaf and hard of hearing
• disability studies
• emotional disabilities
• inclusion
• language or learning disabilities
• special education
• visual impairment