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Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Exercise and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 30636

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Masatoshi Nakamura

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Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Nishi Kyushu University, 4490-9 Ozaki, Kanzaki, Saga 842-8585, Japan
Interests: muscle-tendon adaptation; flexibility; stretching; resistance training; ultrasound; muscle stiffness; eccentric contraction; cross-education effect; delayed onset muscle soreness
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Dr. Andreas Konrad

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Institute of Human Movement Science, Sport and Health, University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
Interests: stretching; flexibility; biomechanics; muscle performance; training science; muscle–tendon unit; soccer science
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Dr. Takamasa Mizuno

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Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
Interests: exercise physiology; muscle and tendon flexibility; stretchin
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Dr. Kosuke Takeuchi

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Department of Physical Therapy, Kobe International University, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501, Japan
Interests: sports science; stretching; sports medicine
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Long-term exercise interventions (e.g. aerobics, strength training, stretching training) are frequently performed in various populations because they can lead to improvements in physical function. However, the influence of various exercise modalities on muscular adaptation has not been fully elucidated. Thus, the aim of this Special Issue is to establish effective exercises for muscular adaptation in various populations.

We invite investigators to contribute original research articles or review articles that will contribute to the body of evidence of understanding the effect of chronic exercise intervention on muscular adaptation and establish the effective approach for muscular adaptation. Investigators who have conducted research on these topics are invited to submit manuscripts for consideration for this Special Issue in IJERP.

Dr. Masatoshi Nakamura
Dr. Andreas Konrad
Dr. Takamasa Mizuno
Dr. Kosuke Takeuchi
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

exercise
resistance training
stretching intervention
muscle volume
MRI
ultrasound
muscle stiffness
muscle thickness
pennation angle
fascile length

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 1465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Unilateral Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation with Illusionary Mirror Visual Feedback on the Contralateral Muscle: A Pilot Study

by Xin Ye, Daniel Vala, Hayden Walker, Victor Gaza, Vinz Umali, Patrick Brodoff, Nathan Gockel and Masatoshi Nakamura

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(4), 3755; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph20043755 - 20 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1450

Abstract

We aim to examine the cross-education effects of unilateral muscle neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) training combined with illusionary mirror visual feedback (MVF). Fifteen adults (NMES + MVF: 5; NMES: 5, Control: 5) completed this study. The experimental groups completed a 3-week NMES training on their dominant elbow flexor muscle. The NMES + MVF group had a mirror placed in the midsagittal plane between their upper arms, so a visual illusion was created in which their non-dominant arms appeared to be stimulated. Baseline and post-training measurements included both arms’ isometric strength, voluntary activation level, and resting twitch. Cross-education effects were not observed from all dependent variables. For the unilateral muscle, both experimental groups showed greater strength increases when compared to the control (isometric strength % changes: NMES + MVF vs. NMES vs. Control = 6.31 ± 4.56% vs. 4.72 ± 8.97% vs. −4.04 ± 3.85%, p < 0.05). Throughout the training, even with the maximally tolerated NMES, the NMES + MVF group had greater perceived exertion and discomfort than the NMES. Additionally, the NMES-evoked force increased throughout the training for both groups. Our data does not support that NMES combined with or without MVF induces cross-education. However, the stimulated muscle becomes more responsive to the NMES and can become stronger following the training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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9 pages, 962 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A 1-Week Comprehensive Foam Rolling Intervention Program Can Improve Knee Pain but Not Muscle Function and Range of Motion in Patients with Total Knee Arthroplasty

by Masanobu Yokochi, Masatoshi Nakamura, Ayaka Iwata, Ryota Kaneko, Shiho Watanabe, Andreas Konrad and Noboru Yamada

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(4), 3351; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph20043351 - 14 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1589

Abstract

We investigate the effect of a 1-week comprehensive foam rolling (FR) intervention program on knee pain, range of motion (ROM), and muscle function in patients with TKA.Thirty patients with TKA were randomly allocated to FR (n = 15) or control (n = 15) groups. The control group received only regular physical therapy. Patients in the FR group performed the FR intervention in addition to their regular physical therapy twice daily from postoperative weeks two to three (60 s × 3 repetitions × 2 times/day × 6 days: total = 2160 s). Pain score, knee flexion and extension ROM, muscle strength, walking function, and balance function were measured before and after the FR intervention. From the second to third postoperative weeks, there were significant improvements in all variables, and the reduction in pain score at stretching was significantly greater in the FR group (−26.0 ± 1.4; p < 0.05) than in the control group (−12.5 ± 1.9). However, there was no significant difference in changes in the other variables except for the pain score at stretching between FR and control groups. A 1-week comprehensive FR intervention program in patients with TKA could reduce pain scores at stretching without a synergistic effect on physical function, i.e., walking speed, balance function, and muscle strength of the knee extensors muscles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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13 pages, 1663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Medial and Lateral Gastrocnemius Stiffness after Exercise-Induced Muscle Fatigue

by Prarthana Sanya Lall, Abdulrahman M. Alsubiheen, Mishal M. Aldaihan and Hanuel Lee

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(21), 13891; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192113891 - 26 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2566

Abstract

Muscles are affected at the cellular level by exercised-induced fatigue, inducing changes in their stiffness. Examining muscle stiffness can improve the knowledge of various pathologic conditions, such as pain and injury. The objective of this study was to examine the stiffness of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscle and the lateral gastrocnemius (LG) muscle to determine the changes in stiffness, and to assess the differences in the stiffness between the MG and the LG, as affected by muscle fatigue measured using shear wave elastography (SWE) and a MyotonPRO after inducing muscle fatigue. A total of 35 healthy young adults participated in the study. The stiffness of the MG and the LG were assessed before and after a muscle fatigue protocol (MFP), which included three sets of 50 eccentric contractions of the calf muscles of the dominant leg, at rest, and at maximum voluntary contraction (MVC). The measurements were taken with SWE and the MyotonPRO simultaneously. Compared to baseline, the resting stiffness of the MG and the LG significantly increased immediately, 24 h, and 48 h after muscle fatigue (p < 0.05); however, during MVC, the stiffness of the MG decreased (p < 0.05) and that of the LG showed no change (p > 0.05). When the stiffness of the MG and the LG were compared before and after the MFP, changes in the stiffness of the MG were significantly greater than those in the LG (p < 0.05). This signifies that the MG was more affected by the exercise-induced muscle fatigue than was the LG. The assessment of musculoskeletal tissue and its characteristics, before and after eccentric exercise, is crucial in the prevention of overuse injuries associated with repeated exposure to both low and high levels of force. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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10 pages, 2190 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Astaxanthin Supplementation on Walking Capacity by Reducing Oxidative Stress in Nursing Home Residents

by Ryosuke Nakanishi, Miho Kanazashi, Masayuki Tanaka, Minoru Tanaka and Hidemi Fujino

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(20), 13492; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192013492 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2650

Abstract

Oxidative stress is associated with deterioration of endurance and muscle strength, which are mostly accompanied by aging. Astaxanthin supplement has excellent antioxidant activity without any pro-oxidative properties. In this study, we investigated how astaxanthin supplementation affects walking endurance and muscle strength in nursing home residents. Healthy elderly individuals (age: 67 to 94) were divided into two groups: 13 subjects received a daily dose of 24 mg of astaxanthin for 16 weeks (astaxanthin group) and 11 subjects received a placebo (placebo group). These subjects were compared using body component measurements, serum d-ROM levels, the distance of 6-min walking, blood lactate levels after the 6-min walking test, and muscle strength. After supplementation, the levels of d-ROMs and blood lactate after the 6-min walking test in the astaxanthin group significantly decreased compared with the placebo group (p < 0.05). Additionally, the walking distance was significantly higher in the astaxanthin group than in the placebo group (p < 0.05), despite a significant reduction in lactate levels after 6-MWT (p < 0.05). However, no significant intergroup differences were observed in muscle mass and strength. Astaxanthin supplement for 16 weeks is effective to increase the endurance capacity of the elderly. Astaxanthin supplement suppresses d-ROMs at rest and lactic acid production after the 6-min walk test. In contrast, astaxanthin supplement did not show significant intergroup differences in the muscle mass and strength. Therefore, the effect was most likely accompanied by an increase in endurance instead of an increase in muscle strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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11 pages, 2091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation between Cardiopulmonary Indices and Running Performance in a 14.5 km Endurance Running Event

by Milena Tomovic, Alexandros Toliopoulos, Nikolaos Koutlianos, Anastasios Dalkiranis, Sasa Bubanj, Asterios Deligiannis and Evangelia Kouidi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(19), 12289; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph191912289 - 27 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1609

Abstract

Background: Running is a common recreational activity, and the number of long-distance-race participants is continuously growing. It is well-established that regular physical activity can prevent and manage non-communicable diseases and benefit public health. Training for a long-distance race requires development of specific aerobic abilities and should generate the desired race performance. The purpose of this study was to support the training design and motivation of recreational endurance runners, by investigating whether a 14.5 km race performance of long-distance runners correlates with their cardiopulmonary indices measured in the laboratory. Methods: To examine the relationships of a 14.5 km running performance with the cardiopulmonary parameters of amateur runners, a cross-sectional study design was applied. Fifteen (eleven men and four women) recreational long-distance runners (aged 41.3 ± 9.2 years) from Northern Greece were included in the study and were evaluated in the laboratory within one week before an endurance running race—the 14.5 km Philip Road race, in Greece. The laboratory-based examinations of the athletes consisted of a comprehensive medical pre-participation screening and maximal cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Results: The results showed that the 14.5 km race performance time (73.8 ± 9.7 min) significantly correlated with the cardiopulmonary-exercise-testing speed-related indices at specific submaximal and maximal workloads (p < 0.01, p < 0.05), while the cardiopulmonary indices of oxygen uptake did not reliably predict race running time (p > 0.05). Conclusions: There is a better correlation of the 14.5 km running performance of recreational long-distance runners with the cardiopulmonary-exercise-testing speed-related indices at specific workloads than with the indices of oxygen uptake, running economy or respiratory economy. When preparing a training strategy, amateur long-distance runners should mostly rely on specific running-speed-related laboratory data rather than on oxygen-uptake values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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12 pages, 1308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Foam Rolling Training on Performance Parameters: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis including Controlled and Randomized Controlled Trials

by Andreas Konrad, Masatoshi Nakamura and David George Behm

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(18), 11638; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph191811638 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3458

Abstract

Foam rolling (FR) is a new and popular technique for increasing range of motion. While there are a few studies that demonstrate increased performance measures after an acute bout of FR, the overall evidence indicates trivial performance benefits. As there have been no meta-analyses on the effects of chronic FR on performance, the objective of this systematic meta-analytical review was to quantify the effects of FR training on performance. We searched PubMed, Scopus, the Cochrane library, and Web of Science for FR training studies with a duration greater than two weeks, and found eight relevant studies. We used a random effect meta-analysis that employed a mixed-effect model to identify subgroup analyses. GRADE analysis was used to gauge the quality of the evidence obtained from this meta-analysis. Egger’s regression intercept test (intercept 1.79; p = 0.62) and an average PEDro score of 6.25 (±0.89) indicated no or low risk of reporting bias, respectively. GRADE analysis indicated that we can be moderately confident in the effect estimates. The meta-analysis found no significant difference between FR and control conditions (ES = −0.294; p = 0.281; I² = 73.68). Analyses of the moderating variables showed no significant differences between randomized control vs. controlled trials (Q = 0.183; p = 0.67) and no relationship between ages (R² = 0.10; p = 0.37), weeks of intervention (R² = 0.17; p = 0.35), and total load of FR (R² = 0.24; p = 0.11). In conclusion, there were no significant performance changes with FR training and no specific circumstances leading to performance changes following FR training exceeding two weeks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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12 pages, 3184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exe-Muscle: An Exercised Human Skeletal Muscle Gene Expression Database

by Kaiyuan Huang, Jingwen Song, Weishuai Kong and Zhongyuan Deng

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(14), 8806; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148806 - 20 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1867

Abstract

Human muscle tissue undergoes dynamic changes in gene expression during exercise, and the dynamics of these genes are correlated with muscle adaptation to exercise. A database of gene expression changes in human muscle before and after exercise was established for data mining. A web-based searchable database, Exe-muscle, was developed using microarray sequencing data, which can help users to retrieve gene expression at different times. Search results provide a complete description of target genes or genes with specific expression patterns. We can explore the molecular mechanisms behind exercise science by studying the changes in muscle gene expression over time before and after exercise. Based on the high-throughput microarray data before and after human exercise, a human pre- and post-exercise database was created using web-based database technology, which researchers can use or share their gene expression data. The Exe-muscle database is accessible online. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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12 pages, 641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship between Resistance Training Frequency and Muscle Quality in Adolescents

by Marshall A. Naimo and Ja K. Gu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(13), 8099; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19138099 - 01 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1816

Abstract

Previous research has established the role of resistance training (RT) on muscle function in adolescents, but a lack of evidence to optimize RT for enhancing muscle quality (MQ) exists. This study examined whether RT frequency is associated with MQ in a nationally representative adolescent cohort. A total of 605 adolescents (12–15 year) in NHANES were stratified based on RT frequency. MQ was calculated as combined handgrip strength divided by arm lean mass (via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry). Analysis of covariance was adjusted for sex, race/ethnicity, and arm fat percentage; p < 0.05 was considered significant. RT frequency was associated with MQ for 2–7 day/week but not 1 day/week. When no RT was compared to 1–2 and 3–7 day/week, associations were present for 3–7 day/week but not 1–2 day/week. When comparing no RT to 1–4 and 5–7 day/week, associations existed for 5–7 day/week but not 1–4 day/week. Next, no RT was compared to 1, 2–3, and 4–7 day/week; associations were found for 4–7 day/week, while 2–3 day/week had a borderline association (p = 0.06); there were no associations for 1 day/week. Finally, no RT was compared to 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5–7 day/week; associations were present for all except 1 and 3 day/week. These prospective data suggest a minimum RT frequency of 2 day/week is associated with MQ in adolescents as indicated by the lack of differences in MQ between 1 day/week RT versus no RT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

11 pages, 1767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bar Load-Velocity Profile of Full Squat and Bench Press Exercises in Young Recreational Athletes

by Jairo Alejandro Fernandez Ortega, Dario Mendoza Romero, Hugo Sarmento and Laura Prieto Mondragón

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(11), 6756; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19116756 - 01 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2830

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the mean propulsive velocity (MVP) at various percentages of one repetition maximum (1RM) in the full squat and chest press exercises. A total of 96 young women and 256 young men (recreational athletes) performed an incremental test (50–60–70–80% 1RM) comprising the bench press and full squat exercises in two different sessions. The individual load and velocity ratios were established through the MPV. Data were analyzed using SPSS software version 25.0, with the significance level set at 5%. The following findings were revealed: highly linear load-velocity relationships in the group of women (r = 0.806 in the squat, and r = 0.872 in the bench press) and in the group of men (r = 0.832 and r = 0.880, respectively); significant differences (p < 0.001) in the MPV at 50–70–80% 1RM between the bench press and the full squat in men and at 70–80% 1RM in women; and a high variability in the MPV (11.49% to 22.63) in the bench press and full squat (11.58% to 25.15%) was observed in women and men (11.31% to 21.06%, and 9.26% to 24.2%) at the different percentages of 1RM evaluated. These results suggest that the load-velocity ratio in non-strength-trained subjects should be determined individually to more precisely establish the relative load to be used in a full squat and bench press training program. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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14 pages, 15076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simulation Analysis of Maternal Pelvic Floor Muscle

by Rongrong Xuan, Mingshuwen Yang, Yajie Gao, Shuaijun Ren, Jialin Li, Zhenglun Yang, Yang Song, Xu-Hao Huang, Ee-Chon Teo, Jue Zhu and Yaodong Gu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(20), 10821; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182010821 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4413

Abstract

Pelvic floor disorder (PFD) is a common disease affecting the quality of life of middle-aged and elderly women. Pelvic floor muscle (PFM) damage is related to delivery mode, fetal size, and parity. Spontaneous vaginal delivery causes especially great damage to PFM. The purpose of this study was to summarize the characteristics of PFM action during the second stage of labor by collecting female pelvic MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) data and, further, to try to investigate the potential pathogenetic mechanism of PFD. A three-dimensional model was established to study the influence factors and characteristics of PFM strength. In the second stage of labor, the mechanical responses, possible damage, and the key parts of postpartum lesions of PFM due to the different fetal biparietal diameter (BPD) sizes were analyzed by finite element simulations. The research results showed that the peak stress and strain of PFM appeared at one-half of the delivery period and at the attachment point of the pubococcygeus to the skeleton. In addition, during the simulation process, the pubococcygeus was stretched by about 1.2 times and the levator ani muscle was stretched by more than two-fold. There was also greater stress and strain in the middle area of the levator ani muscle and pubococcygeus. According to the statistics, either being too young or in old maternal age will increase the probability of postpartum PFM injury. During delivery, the entire PFM underwent the huge deformation, in which the levator ani muscle and the pubococcygeus were seriously stretched and the attachment point between the pubococcygeus and the skeleton were the places with the highest probability of postpartum lesions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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9 pages, 337 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Adding Inter-Set Static Stretching to Flywheel Resistance Training on Flexibility, Muscular Strength, and Regional Hypertrophy in Young Men

by Masatoshi Nakamura, Hirotaka Ikezu, Shigeru Sato, Kaoru Yahata, Ryosuke Kiyono, Riku Yoshida, Kosuke Takeuchi and João Pedro Nunes

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(7), 3770; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18073770 - 04 Apr 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4698

Abstract

Performing static stretching (SS) during resistance training (RT) rest periods is posited to potentiate muscular adaptations, but the literature is scarce on the topic. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of adding inter-set SS to a lower-limb flywheel RT program on joint flexibility, muscular strength, and regional hypertrophy. Sixteen untrained male adults (21 ± 1 y) completed the study, where they performed progressive flywheel bilateral squatting twice a week for 5 weeks. One leg of each participant was randomly allocated to perform SS during the inter-set rest period (RT+SS), while the other leg served as control (RT only). Before and after the intervention, knee flexion range of motion; knee extension isometric, concentric, and eccentric peak torque; 1-repetition maximum; and muscle thickness of the lower-limb muscles were assessed. Following the training period, additional effects were observed for the inter-set SS side on increasing joint flexibility (p < 0.05), whereas the average increase in strength measures was 5.3% for the control side, and 10.1% for the inter-set SS side, however, SS intervention induced significantly greater gains only for knee extension isometric strength, but not for dynamic 1-RM, concentric, and eccentric tests. Hamstrings and gluteus maximus did not hypertrophy with training; increases quadriceps muscle thickness depended on the site/portion analyzed, but no significant difference was observed between legs (average: RT = 7.3%, RT+SS = 8.0%). The results indicate that adding inter-set SS to RT may provide large gains in flexibility, slightly benefits for muscular strength (especially for isometric action), but do not impact muscle hypertrophy in untrained young men. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Responses and Adaptation in Exercise, Sport and Health)

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