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Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Health Care Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2024 | Viewed by 40858

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Khaled Khatab

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Health and Wellbeing, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S10 2BP, UK
Interests: Bayesian statistical methods and their application to epidemiology and health—in particular, addressing maternal and child health and a variety of health-related health inequalities, in low and middle-income countries, using large scale data

Prof. Benn Sartorius

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1H 9SH, UK
Interests: spatial-temporal modelling of disease burden and attributable determinants both at small-area resolution as well as at country and global scales

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues

It is well known that progress on public health and epidemiology issues-particularly maternal and child health has long been recognised as critical to promoting the socio-economic development of a country. Thus, it was not unexpected that improvements in maternal and child health (MCH) were two of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In particular, MDG 4 targeted reducing under-ﬁve mortality rates by 67% between 1990 and 2015, and MDG 5 set two targets: reducing maternal mortality ratio by 75% and achieving universal access to reproductive health by 2015 (United Nations 2012). However, progress towards meeting these targets has been very slow, especially in low- and middle-income countries. For instance, the annual rate of under-ﬁve mortality decline is 2.1%, which is below the target of 4.4% per year. Although some countries have achieved considerable success in improving child health and reducing child mortality, localising gains and gaps in reducing child mortality has been less understood. In recognition of the slow progress in this area, more research is needed. The interventions and programmes that are most needed should cover alleviating the adverse effects of morbidities in pregnant women and their children and also focusing on the delivery of evidence-based and cost-effective care for mother and children.

This Special Issue seeks papers on sociodemographic, geographical and environmental factors that influence public health and epidemiology issues in general as well as child and maternal health in particular, mortality and malnutrition, and to explore the main concepts, gaps, statistical and health economic methods that allow us to understand and alleviate these issues, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

The submission deadline is 31 December 2024. Manuscripts should be submitted through the online manuscript submission and editorial system at https://susy.mdpi.com. You need to choose IJERPH as the journal-title, “Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries” as Special Issue title. For further details on the submission process, please see the instructions for authors at the journal website (https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/journal/ijerph/instructions).

We look forward to hearing from you soon.

Kind regards,

Prof. Dr. Khaled Khatab
Prof. Benn Sartorius
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

child morbidity and mortality
child malnutrition
maternal health
effective care for mother and children
child and adolescent mental health
interventions and evidence
child labour and environmental influence
public health and epidemiology issues
global health issues
effectiveness of health care

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 2652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Machine Learning Approach to Model Childhood Stunting in Pakistan: Role of Socio-Economic and Environmental Factors

by Muhammad Usman and Katarzyna Kopczewska

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(17), 10967; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph191710967 - 02 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2597

Abstract

This study presents the determinants of childhood stunting as the consequence of child malnutrition. We checked two groups of factors—the socio-economic situation and climate vulnerability—using disaggregated sub-regional data in the spatial context. Data related to the percentage of stunted children in Pakistan for 2017 were retrieved from MICS 2017-18 along with other features. We used three quantitative models: ordinary least squares regression (OLS) to examine the linear relationships among the selected features, spatial regression (SDEM) to identify and capture the spatial spillover effect, and the Extreme Gradient Boosting machine learning algorithm (XGBoost) to analyse the importance of spatial lag and generate predictions. The results showed a high degree of spatial clustering in childhood stunting at the sub-regional level. We found that a 1 percentage point (p.p.) increase in multi-dimensional poverty may translate into a 0.18 p.p. increase in childhood stunting. Furthermore, high climate vulnerability and common marriages before age 15 each exacerbated childhood stunting by another 1 p.p. On the contrary, high female literacy and their high exposure to mass media, together with low climate vulnerability, may reduce childhood stunting. Model diagnostics showed that the SDEM outperformed the OLS model, as AIC_OLS = 766 > AIC_SDEM = 760. Furthermore, XGBoost generated the most accurate predictions in comparison to OLS and SDEM, having the lowest root-mean-square error (RMSE). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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16 pages, 693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Associated with Underutilization of Maternity Health Care Cascade in Mozambique: Analysis of the 2015 National Health Survey

by Sérgio Chicumbe and Maria do Rosário Oliveira Martins

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(13), 7861; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19137861 - 27 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1806

Abstract

Maternity health care services utilization determines maternal and neonate outcomes. Evidence about factors associated with composite non-utilization of four or more antenatal consultations and intrapartum health care services is needed in Mozambique. This study uses data from the 2015 nationwide Mozambique’s Malaria, Immunization and HIV Indicators Survey. At selected representative households, women (n = 2629) with child aged up to 3 years answered a standardized structured questionnaire. Adjusted binary logistic regression assessed associations between women-child pairs characteristics and non-utilization of maternity health care. Seventy five percent (95% confidence interval (CI) = 71.8–77.7%) of women missed a health care cascade step during their last pregnancy. Higher education (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.65; 95% CI = 0.46–0.91), lowest wealth (AOR = 2.1; 95% CI = 1.2–3.7), rural residency (AOR = 1.5; 95% CI = 1.1–2.2), living distant from health facility (AOR = 1.5; 95% CI = 1.1–1.9) and unknown HIV status (AOR = 1.9; 95% CI = 1.4–2.7) were factors associated with non-utilization of the maternity health care cascade. The study highlights that, by 2015, recommended maternity health care cascade utilization did not cover 7 out of 10 pregnant women in Mozambique. Unfavorable sociodemographic and economic factors increase the relative odds for women not being covered by the maternity health care cascade. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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11 pages, 473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predictors of Child’s Health in Pakistan and the Moderating Role of Birth Spacing

by Muhammad Farhan Asif, Salima Meherali, Ghulam Abid, Muhammad Safdar Khan and Zohra S. Lassi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(3), 1759; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19031759 - 03 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1790

Abstract

There is a consensus that better health should be viewed both as a means and an end to achieve development. The level of development should be judged by the health status of the population and the fair distribution of health services across the people. Many determinants affect a child’s health. This study aimed to explore a child’s health predictors and the moderating role of birth spacing on the association between mother’s health care services utilization (MHCSU) and a child’s health. In this study, we used the dataset of Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2017-18 to explore the predictors of child health and the moderating role of birth spacing through binary logistic regression, using SPSS version 20. The results showed an association of mother’s age (35 to 49 years), her education (at least secondary), health care services (more accessible), father’s education (at least secondary), their wealth status (high), and exposure to mass media to improved child health. However, the effect of a mother’s employment status (employed) on her child’s health is significant and negative. The coefficient of moderation term indicated that the moderating role of birth spacing on the association between MHCSU and a child’s health is positive. We conclude that birth spacing is a strong predictor for improving a child’s health. The association between MHCSU and child’s health is more distinct and positive when the birth spacing is at least 33 months. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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25 pages, 1037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individual and Contextual Factors Associated with Malaria among Children 6–59 Months in Nigeria: A Multilevel Mixed Effect Logistic Model Approach

by Phillips Edomwonyi Obasohan, Stephen J. Walters, Richard Jacques and Khaled Khatab

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(21), 11234; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182111234 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2770

Abstract

Background/Purpose: Over the last two decades, malaria has remained a major public health concern worldwide, especially in developing countries leading to high morbidity and mortality among children. Nigeria is the world most burdened malaria endemic nation, contributing more than a quarter of global malaria cases. This study determined the prevalence of malaria among children at 6–59 months in Nigeria, and the effects of individual and contextual factors. Methods: This study utilized data from 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) involving a weighted sample size of 10,185 children who were tested for malaria using rapid diagnostic test (RDT). Given the hierarchical structure of the data set, such that children at Level-1 were nested in communities at Level-2, and nested in states and Federal Capital Territory (FCT) at Level-3, multilevel mixed effect logistic regression models were used for the analysis. Results: The proportion of children 6–59 months of age in Nigeria that had malaria fever positive as assessed by RDTs was 35.5% (3418/10,185), (CI: 33.9–37.1). Kebbi State had 77.7%, (CI: 70.2–83.5), which was the highest proportion of 6–59 months who were malaria positive, next in line was Katsina State with 55.5%, (CI: 47.7–63.1). The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja had the proportion of 29.6%, (CI: 21.6–39.0), malaria positive children of 6–59 months of age. Children between the age of 48 and 59 months were 2.68 times more likely to have malaria fever than children of ages 6–11 months (AOR = 2.68, 95% CI: 2.03–3.54). In addition, children from the rural area (AOR = 2.12, 95% CI: 1.75–2.57), were more likely to suffer from malaria infection compared to children from urban area. Conclusion: The study identified some individual and contextual predictors of malaria among children in Nigeria. These factors identified in this study are potential areas that need to be considered for policy designs and implementations toward control and total elimination of malaria-related morbidity and mortality among children in Nigeria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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27 pages, 628 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nutritional Influences on the Health of Women and Children in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique: A Qualitative Study

by Adelaide Lusambili, Violet Naanyu, Gibson Manda, Lindsay Mossman, Stefania Wisofschi, Rachel Pell, Sofia Jadavji, Jerim Obure and Marleen Temmerman

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(17), 6205; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17176205 - 27 Aug 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4434

Abstract

In 2017, the Government of Mozambique declared localized acute malnutrition crises in a range of districts across Mozambique including Cabo Delgado. This is in spite of intensive efforts by different non-governmental organizations (NGO) and the Government of Mozambique to expand access to information on good nutritional practices as well as promote nutrition-specific interventions, such as cooking demonstrations, home gardens and the distribution of micronutrient powder to children. This paper examines and discusses key nutritional influences on the health of pregnant and breastfeeding mothers in Cabo Delgado province, Mozambique. We conducted 21 key informant interviews (KIIs) with a wide range of stakeholders and 16 in-depth interviews (IDIs) with women. In addition, we conducted four focus group discussions with each of the following groups: (1) pregnant adolescent girls, (2) pregnant women >20 yrs, (3) women >20 yrs with babies <6 mths who were not practicing exclusive breastfeeding, (4) women >20 yrs of children <2 yrs and (5) with fathers of children <2 yrs. Data were analyzed thematically using NVIVO software. There is no single widely held influence on pregnant and breast-feeding women’s nutritional decision-making, choices and food consumption. Rather, variables such as social-cultural, environmental, economic, gender, knowledge and information intersect in their roles in nutritional food choices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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16 pages, 1847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stunting among Preschool Children in India: Temporal Analysis of Age-Specific Wealth Inequalities

by Sunil Rajpal, Rockli Kim, William Joe and S.V. Subramanian

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(13), 4702; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17134702 - 30 Jun 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2444

Abstract

Adequate nutritional intake for mothers during pregnancy and for children in the first two years of life is known to be crucial for a child’s lifelong physical and neurodevelopment. In this regard, the global nutrition community has focused on strategies for improving nutritional intake during the first 1000 day period. This is largely justified by the observed steep decline in children’s height-for-age z scores from birth to 23 months and presumed growth faltering at later ages as a reflection of earlier deprivation that is accumulated and irreversible. Empirical evidence on the age-stratified burden of child undernutrition is needed to re-evaluate the appropriate age for nutrition interventions to target among children. Using data from two successive rounds of National Family Health Surveys conducted in 2006 and 2016, the objective of this paper was to analyze intertemporal changes in the age-stratified burden of child stunting across socioeconomic groups in India. We found that child stunting in India was significantly concentrated among children entering preschool age (24 or above months). Further, the temporal reduction in stunting was relatively higher among children aged 36–47 months compared to younger groups (below 12 and 12–23 months). Greater socioeconomic inequalities persisted in stunting among children from 24 months or above age-groups, and these inequalities have increased over time. Children of preschool age (24 or above months) from economically vulnerable households experienced larger reductions in the prevalence of stunting between 2006 and 2016, suggesting that policy research and strategies beyond the first 1000 days could be critical for accelerating the pace of improvement of child nutrition in India. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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10 pages, 330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Hearing Aids on Poverty, Quality of Life and Mental Health in Guatemala: Results of a before and after Study

by Mark Spreckley, David Macleod, Brenda González Trampe, Andrew Smith and Hannah Kuper

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(10), 3470; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17103470 - 15 May 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2594

Abstract

There are 466 million people globally with disabling hearing loss, many of whom can benefit from hearing aids. The aim of the study was to assess the impact of providing hearing aids on poverty, mental health, quality of life, and activities, among adults in Guatemala. A nonrandomised before and after study was conducted, with a comparison group to assess for secular trends. Adult cases with bilateral hearing impairment were identified within 150 km of Guatemala City, as well as age- and sex-matched comparison subjects without disabling hearing loss. All participants were interviewed with a semistructured questionnaire, and cases were offered hearing aids. Participants were reinterviewed 6–9 months later. We interviewed 135 cases and 89 comparison subjects at baseline and follow-up. At baseline, cases were poorer than comparison subjects with respect to individual income (p = 0.01), household income (p = 0.02), and per capita expenditure (PCE) (p = 0.003). After provision of hearing aids, median household income improved among cases (p = 0.03). In the comparison group, median individual income (p = 0.01) and PCE (p = 0.03) fell between baseline at follow-up. At follow-up, there were also improvements in productive time use, quality of life, and depressive symptoms among cases, but these were less apparent in the comparison group. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated a positive effect of hearing aids in improving quality of life, economic circumstances and mental health among Guatemalan adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

Review

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16 pages, 677 KiB

Open AccessReview

Risk Factors Associated with Multimorbidity among Children Aged Under-Five Years in Sub-Saharan African Countries: A Scoping Review

by Phillips Edomwonyi Obasohan, Stephen J. Walters, Richard Jacques and Khaled Khatab

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(2), 1377; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph20021377 - 12 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1818

Abstract

Background/purpose: Globally, the prevalence of multimorbidity (defined as the cooccurrence of two or more diseases in an individual without reference to an index disease) is greater than 33%. Consequently, childhood multimorbidity, a growing public health concern in Low- and Middle-Income-Countries (LMICs), frequently has an impact on children’s health. Therefore, the aim of this scoping review was to locate and describe studies that investigate the association between socioeconomic, demographic, and environmental factors and the prevalence of multimorbidity among children aged under five years in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Methods/Design: We searched MEDLINE, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for papers written in English, and published between January 1990 and March 2022. The search included papers that focused on children aged under five years with multimorbidity from Sub-Saharan Africa and used classical regression methods in their analysis. Results: A total of 261 articles were identified. Out of the 66 articles selected for full-text reading, 60 were removed for various reasons. Therefore, data from a sample of six articles were finally extracted and reported in this study. The sample size for the 6 studies included ranged from 2343 to 193,065 children under five years of age. There were six distinct disease conditions (Pneumonia, diarrhoea, malaria, being overweight, stunting, and anaemia) analysed in the included studies. One of the studies had three concurrent diseases, while the other five studies had two current diseases as their multimorbidity outcome of interest. The prevalence of multimorbidity in these six studies ranged from 1.2% to 24.8%. Conclusions: The relatively few studies found in this research area is an indication of an evidence deficit/knowledge gap yearning to be filled to help policymakers in coming up with integrated multimorbidity care for children in SSA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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21 pages, 1354 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Scoping Review of Selected Studies on Predictor Variables Associated with the Malaria Status among Children under Five Years in Sub-Saharan Africa

by Phillips Edomwonyi Obasohan, Stephen J. Walters, Richard Jacques and Khaled Khatab

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(4), 2119; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18042119 - 22 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3989

Abstract

Background/Purpose: In recent times, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) had been rated by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the most malaria-endemic region in the world. Evidence synthesis of the factors associated with malaria among children aged under-five in SSA is urgently needed. This would help to inform decisions that policymakers and executors in the region need to make for the effective distribution of scarce palliative resources to curb the spread of the illness. This scoping review is aimed at identifying studies that have used multivariate classical regression analysis to determine the predictors associated with malaria among children under five years old in SSA. Methods/Design: The search terms followed population, intervention, comparator, outcome, timing, setting (PICOTS), and were used in searching through the following databases: PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Scopus, and Measure DHS. The databases were searched for published articles from January 1990 to December 2020. Results: Among the 1154 studies identified, only thirteen (13) studies met the study’s inclusion criteria. Narrative syntheses were performed on the selected papers to synchronize the various predictors identified. Factors ranging from child-related (age, birth order and use of a bed net), parental/household-related (maternal age and education status, household wealth index) and community-related variables (community wealth status, free bed net distribution) were some of the identified significant predictors. Conclusions: It is timely to have a synthesis of predictors that influence the malaria status of children under-five in SSA. The outcome of the review will increase the knowledge of the epidemiology of morbidity that will form the basis for designing efficient and cost-effective distribution of palliatives and control of malaria in SSA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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20 pages, 604 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Scoping Review of the Risk Factors Associated with Anaemia among Children Under Five Years in Sub-Saharan African Countries

by Phillips Edomwonyi Obasohan, Stephen J. Walters, Richard Jacques and Khaled Khatab

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8829; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17238829 - 27 Nov 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4196

Abstract

Background/Purpose: Globally, anaemia is a severe public health condition affecting over 24% of the world’s population. Children under five years old and pregnant women are the most vulnerable to this disease. This scoping review aimed to evaluate studies that used classical statistical regression methods on nationally representative health survey data to identify the individual socioeconomic, demographic and contextual risk factors associated with developing anaemia among children under five years of age in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Methods/Design: The reporting pattern followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. The following databases were searched: MEDLINE, EMBASE (OVID platform), Web of Science, PUBMED, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PsycINFO, Scopus, Cochrane library, African Journal of online (AJOL), Google Scholar and Measure DHS. Results: The review identified 20 relevant studies and the risk factors for anaemia were classified as child-related, parental/household-related and community- or area-related factors. The risk factors for anaemia identified included age, birth order, sex, comorbidities (such as fever, diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection), malnutrition or stunting, maternal education, maternal age, mother’s anaemia status, household wealth and place of residence. Conclusion: The outcome of this review is of significant value for health policy and planners to enable them to make informed decision that will correct any imbalances in anaemia across socioeconomic, demographic and contextual characteristics, with the view of making efficient distributions of health interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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23 pages, 846 KiB

Open AccessReview

Risk Factors Associated with Malnutrition among Children Under-Five Years in Sub-Saharan African Countries: A Scoping Review

by Phillips Edomwonyi Obasohan, Stephen J. Walters, Richard Jacques and Khaled Khatab

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8782; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17238782 - 26 Nov 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 10524

Abstract

Background/Purpose: Malnutrition is a significant global public health burden with greater concern among children under five years in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). To effectively address the problem of malnutrition, especially in resource-scarce communities, knowing the prevalence, causes and risk factors associated with it are essential steps. This scoping review aimed to identify the existing literature that uses classical regression analysis on nationally representative health survey data sets to find the individual socioeconomic, demographic and contextual risk factors associated with malnutrition among children under five years of age in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). Methods: The electronic databases searched include EMBASE (OVID platform), PubMed (MEDLINE), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Scopus, Web of Science (WoS) and Cochrane Library. Only papers written in the English language, and for which the publication date was between 1 January 1990 and 31 July 2020, were included. Results: A total of 229 papers were identified, of which 26 were studies that have been included in the review. The risk factors for malnutrition identified were classified as child-related, parental/household-related and community or area-related. Conclusions: Study-interest bias toward stunting over other anthropometric indicators of malnutrition could be addressed with a holistic research approach to equally address the various dimension of the anthropometric indicators of malnutrition in a population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Health and Effective Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries)

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