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Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers
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Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymeric Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2022) | Viewed by 44027

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Krzysztof Moraczewski

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Materials Engineering, Kazimierz Wielki University, Chodkiewicza 30 Str., 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland
Interests: polylactide; antioxidants; surface modification; electroless metallization; thermal analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymeric products made from petrochemical polymers are extremely stable in environmental conditions. Following their use, this feature becomes serious problem for the environment. Most of the products made of plastic are stockpiled in landfills, and the decomposition time of such products is often several hundred years. The solution to this problem may be the use of biodegradable polymers derived from renewable materials and which undergo biodegradation.

Biodegradable polymers are distinctly from regular polymers in their material characteristics. Biodegradable polymers, like any other polymer, can be processed using conventional techniques such as injection molding, extrusion, and compression molding. Furthermore, the use of appropriate methods of modification can result in new or improved properties being obtained for the resulting materials. However, the distinct narrow modification and processing window makes them challenging to modify or process.

Continuing technological progress in the modification and processing of biodegradable polymers leads not only to the enhancement of the product quality but also to the reduction of their prices. As a result, biodegradable polymers may be used to produce both common-use articles or packaging materials, as well as for more complex engineering applications.

In this Special Issue, we aim to publish original research and review articles detailing the current trends and technologies for the modification and processing of biodegradable polymers and their composites that are aimed at improving their properties and expanding the possibilities for application.

Prof. Krzysztof Moraczewski
Guest Editor

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • biodegradable polymers and composites
  • physical and chemical modification of biodegradable polymers
  • physical and chemical processing of biodegradable polymers
  • recycling of biodegradable polymers
  • characteristics of biodegradable polymers and composites

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Published Papers (16 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 18001 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Testing of Epoxy Resin Modified with Eco-Additives
by Agnieszka Derewonko, Wojciech Fabianowski and Jerzy Siczek
Materials 2023, 16(5), 1854; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16051854 - 24 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1924
Abstract
The future belongs to biodegradable epoxies. In order to improve epoxy biodegradability, it is crucial to select suitable organic additives. The additives should be selected so as to (maximally) accelerate the decomposition of crosslinked epoxies under normal environmental conditions. However, naturally, such rapid [...] Read more.
The future belongs to biodegradable epoxies. In order to improve epoxy biodegradability, it is crucial to select suitable organic additives. The additives should be selected so as to (maximally) accelerate the decomposition of crosslinked epoxies under normal environmental conditions. However, naturally, such rapid decomposition should not occur within the normal (expected) service life of a product. Consequently, it is desirable that the newly modified epoxy should exhibit at least some of the mechanical properties of the original material. Epoxies can be modified with different additives (such as inorganics with different water uptake, multiwalled carbon nanotubes, and thermoplastics) that can increase their mechanical strength but does not lead to their biodegradability. In this work, we present several mixtures of epoxy resins together with organic additives based on cellulose derivatives and modified soya oil. These additives are environmentally friendly and should increase the epoxy’s biodegradability on the one hand without deteriorating its mechanical properties on the other. This paper concentrates mainly on the question of the tensile strength of various mixtures. Herein, we present the results of uniaxial stretching tests for both modified and unmodified resin. Based on statistical analysis, two mixtures were selected for further studies, namely the investigation of durability properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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18 pages, 6365 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Biodegradable Food Contact Materials under Gamma-Radiation Treatment
by Karolina Wiszumirska, Dorota Czarnecka-Komorowska, Wojciech Kozak, Marta Biegańska, Patrycja Wojciechowska, Maciej Jarzębski and Katarzyna Pawlak-Lemańska
Materials 2023, 16(2), 859; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16020859 - 16 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1946
Abstract
Radiation is an example of one of the techniques used for pasteurization and sterilization in various packaging systems. There is a high demand for the evaluation of the possible degradation of new composites, especially based on natural raw materials. The results of experimental [...] Read more.
Radiation is an example of one of the techniques used for pasteurization and sterilization in various packaging systems. There is a high demand for the evaluation of the possible degradation of new composites, especially based on natural raw materials. The results of experimental research that evaluated the impact of radiation technology on biodegradable and compostable packaging materials up to 40 kGy have been presented. Two commercially available flexible composite films based on aliphatic–aromatic copolyesters (AA) were selected for the study, including one film with chitosan and starch (AA-CH-S) and the other with thermoplastic starch (AA-S). The materials were subjected to the influence of ionizing radiation from 10 to 40 kGy and then tests were carried out to check their usability as packaging material for the food industry. The results showed that the mechanical properties of AA-S films improved due to the radiation-induced cross-linking processes, while in the case of AA-CH-S films, a considerable decrease in the elongation at break was observed. The results also showed a decrease in the WVTR in the case of AA-S and no changes in barrier properties in the case of AA-CH-S. Both materials revealed no changes in the odor analyzed by sensory analysis. In the case of the AA-S films, the higher the radiation dose, the faster the biodegradation rate. In the case of the AA-CH-S film, the radiation did not affect biodegradation. The performed research enables the evaluation of the materials intended for direct contact with food. AA-CH-S was associated with unsatisfactory parameters (exceeding the overall migration limit and revealing color change during storage) while AA-S showed compliance at the level of tests carried out. The study showed that the AA-CH-S composite did not show a synergistic effect due to the presence of chitosan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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15 pages, 4073 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Characterization of Novel Microgels Containing Nano-SiO2 and Copolymeric Hydrogel Based on Poly (Acrylamide) and Poly (Acrylic Acid): Morphological, Structural and Swelling Studies
by Tannaz Soltanolzakerin Sorkhabi, Mehrab Fallahi Samberan, Krzysztof Adam Ostrowski, Tomasz M. Majka, Marcin Piechaczek and Paulina Zajdel
Materials 2022, 15(14), 4782; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15144782 - 08 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2546
Abstract
In this paper, novel microgels containing nano-SiO2 were prepared by in situ copolymerization using nano-SiO2 particles as a reinforcing agent, nanosilica functional monomer (silane-modified nano-SiO2) as a structure and morphology director, acrylamide (AAm) as a monomer, acrylic acid (AAc) [...] Read more.
In this paper, novel microgels containing nano-SiO2 were prepared by in situ copolymerization using nano-SiO2 particles as a reinforcing agent, nanosilica functional monomer (silane-modified nano-SiO2) as a structure and morphology director, acrylamide (AAm) as a monomer, acrylic acid (AAc) as a comonomer, potassium persulfate (KPS) as a polymerization initiator, and N,N′-methylene bis (acrylamide) (MBA) as a crosslinker. In addition, a conventional copolymeric hydrogel based on poly (acrylamide/acrylic acid) was synthesized by solution polymerization. The microgel samples, hydrogel and nanoparticles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). A FESEM micrograph of copolymeric hydrogel showed the high porosity and 3D interconnected microstructure. Furthermore, FESEM results demonstrated that when nano-SiO2 particles were used in the AAm/AAc copolymerization process, the microstructure and morphology of product changed from porous hydrogel to a nanocomposite microgel with cauliflower-like morphology. According to FESEM images, the copolymerization of AAm and AAc monomers with a nanosilica functional monomer or polymerizable nanosilica particle as a seed led to a microgel with core–shell structure and morphology. These results demonstrated that the polymerizable vinyl group on nano-SiO2 particles have controlled the copolymerization and the product morphology. FTIR analysis showed that the copolymeric chains of polyacrylamide (PAAm) and poly (acrylic acid) (PAAc) were chemically bonded to the surfaces of the nano-SiO2 particles and silane-modified nano-SiO2. The particulate character of microgel samples and the existence of long distance among aggregations of particles led to rapid swelling and increasing of porosity and therefore increasing of degree of swelling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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23 pages, 3228 KiB  
Article
Alginate Biofunctional Films Modified with Melanin from Watermelon Seeds and Zinc Oxide/Silver Nanoparticles
by Łukasz Łopusiewicz, Szymon Macieja, Mariusz Śliwiński, Artur Bartkowiak, Swarup Roy and Peter Sobolewski
Materials 2022, 15(7), 2381; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15072381 - 23 Mar 2022
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5518
Abstract
Bioactive films find more and more applications in various industries, including packaging and biomedicine. This work describes the preparation, characterization and physicochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of alginate films modified with melanin from watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) seeds at concentrations of 0.10%, [...] Read more.
Bioactive films find more and more applications in various industries, including packaging and biomedicine. This work describes the preparation, characterization and physicochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of alginate films modified with melanin from watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) seeds at concentrations of 0.10%, 0.25% and 0.50% w/w and with silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles (10 mM film casting solutions for both metal nanoparticles). Melanin served as the active ingredient of the film and as a nanoparticle stabilizer. The additives affected the color, antioxidant (~90% ABTS and DPPH radicals scavenging for all melanin modified films) and antimicrobial activity (up to 4 mm grow inhibition zones of E. coli and S. aureus for both zinc oxide and silver nanoparticles), mechanical (silver nanoparticles addition effected two-fold higher tensile strength), thermal and barrier properties for water and UV-vis radiation. The addition of ZnONP resulted in improved UV barrier properties while maintaining good visible light transmittance, whereas AgNP resulted in almost complete UV barrier and reduced visible light transmittance of the obtained films. What is more, the obtained films did not have an adverse effect on cell viability in cytotoxicity screening. These films may have potential applications in food packaging or biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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17 pages, 5211 KiB  
Article
Grafted Lactic Acid Oligomers on Lignocellulosic Filler towards Biocomposites
by Anna Czajka, Radosław Bulski, Anna Iuliano, Andrzej Plichta, Kamila Mizera and Joanna Ryszkowska
Materials 2022, 15(1), 314; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15010314 - 02 Jan 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1635
Abstract
Lactic acid oligomers (OLAs) were in situ synthesized from lactic acid (LAc) and grafted onto chokeberry pomace (CP) particleboards by direct condensation. Biocomposites of poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and modified/unmodified CP particles containing different size fractions were obtained using a mini-extruder. To confirm [...] Read more.
Lactic acid oligomers (OLAs) were in situ synthesized from lactic acid (LAc) and grafted onto chokeberry pomace (CP) particleboards by direct condensation. Biocomposites of poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and modified/unmodified CP particles containing different size fractions were obtained using a mini-extruder. To confirm the results of the grafting process, the FTIR spectra of filler particles were obtained. Performing 1HNMR spectroscopy allowed us to determine the chemical structure of synthesized OLAs. The thermal degradation of modified CP and biocomposites were studied using TGA, and the thermal characteristics of biocomposites were investigated using DSC. In order to analyse the adhesion between filler particles and PLA in biocomposites, SEM images of brittle fracture surfaces were registered. The mechanical properties of biocomposites were studied using a tensile testing machine. FTIR and 1HNMR analysis confirmed the successful grafting process of OLAs. The modified filler particles exhibited a better connection with hydrophobic PLA matrix alongside improved mechanical properties than the biocomposites with unmodified filler particles. Moreover, a DSC analysis of the biocomposites with modified CP showed a reduction in glass temperature on average by 9 °C compared to neat PLA. It confirms the plasticizing effect of grafted and ungrafted OLAs. The results are promising, and can contribute to increasing the use of agri-food lignocellulosic residue in manufacturing biodegradable packaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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19 pages, 4118 KiB  
Article
Polylactide Films with the Addition of Olive Leaf Extract—Physico-Chemical Characterization
by Sylwia Grabska-Zielińska, Magdalena Gierszewska, Ewa Olewnik-Kruszkowska and Mohamed Bouaziz
Materials 2021, 14(24), 7623; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14247623 - 11 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2589
Abstract
The aim of this work was to obtain and characterize polylactide films (PLA) with the addition of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as a plasticizer and chloroformic olive leaf extract (OLE). The composition of OLE was characterized by LC-MS/MS techniques. The films with the potential [...] Read more.
The aim of this work was to obtain and characterize polylactide films (PLA) with the addition of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as a plasticizer and chloroformic olive leaf extract (OLE). The composition of OLE was characterized by LC-MS/MS techniques. The films with the potential for using in the food packaging industry were prepared using a solvent evaporation method. The total content of the phenolic compounds and DPPH radical scavenging assay of all the obtained materials have been tested. Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) allows for determining the molecular structure, while Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) indicated differences in the films’ surface morphology. Among other crucial properties, mechanical properties, thickness, degree of crystallinity, water vapor permeation rate (WVPR), and color change have also been evaluated. The results showed that OLE contains numerous active substances, including phenolic compounds, and PLA/PEG/OLE films are characterized by improved antioxidant properties. The OLE addition into PLA/PEG increases the material crystallinity, while the WVPR values remain almost unaffected. From these studies, significant insight was gained into the possibility of the application of chloroform as a solvent for both olive leaf extraction and for the preparation of OLE, PLA, and PEG-containing film-forming solutions. Finally, evaporation of the solvent from OLE can be omitted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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35 pages, 11298 KiB  
Article
Artificial Ageing, Chemical Resistance, and Biodegradation of Biocomposites from Poly(Butylene Succinate) and Wheat Bran
by Emil Sasimowski, Łukasz Majewski and Marta Grochowicz
Materials 2021, 14(24), 7580; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14247580 - 09 Dec 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2782
Abstract
The results of comprehensive studies on accelerated (artificial) ageing and biodegradation of polymer biocomposites on PBS matrix filled with raw wheat bran (WB) are presented in this paper. These polymer biocomposites are intended for the manufacture of goods, in particular disposable packaging and [...] Read more.
The results of comprehensive studies on accelerated (artificial) ageing and biodegradation of polymer biocomposites on PBS matrix filled with raw wheat bran (WB) are presented in this paper. These polymer biocomposites are intended for the manufacture of goods, in particular disposable packaging and disposable utensils, which decompose naturally under the influence of biological agents. The effects of wheat bran content within the range of 10–50 wt.% and extruder screw speed of 50–200 min−1 during the production of biocomposite pellets on the resistance of the products to physical, chemical, and biological factors were evaluated. The research included the determination of the effect of artificial ageing on the changes of structural and thermal properties by infrared spectra (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TG). They showed structural changes—disruption of chains within the ester bond, which occurred in the composition with 50% bran content as early as after 250 h of accelerated ageing. An increase in the degree of crystallinity with ageing was also found to be as high as 48% in the composition with 10% bran content. The temperature taken at the beginning of weight loss of the compositions studied was also lowered, even by 30 °C at the highest bran content. The changes of mechanical properties of biocomposite samples were also investigated. These include: hardness, surface roughness, transverse shrinkage, weight loss, and optical properties: colour and gloss. The ageing hardness of the biocomposite increased by up to 12%, and the surface roughness (Ra) increased by as much as 2.4 µm at the highest bran content. It was also found that ageing causes significant colour changes of the biocomposition (ΔE = 7.8 already at 10% bran content), and that the ageing-induced weight loss of the biocomposition of 0.31–0.59% is lower than that of the samples produced from PBS alone (1.06%). On the other hand, the transverse shrinkage of moldings as a result of ageing turned out to be relatively small, at 0.05%–0.35%. The chemical resistance of biocomposites to NaOH and HCl as well as absorption of polar and non-polar liquids (oil and water) were also determined. Biodegradation studies were carried out under controlled conditions in compost and weight loss of the tested compositions was determined. The weight of samples made from PBS alone after 70 days of composting decreased only by 4.5%, while the biocomposition with 10% bran content decreased by 15.1%, and with 50% bran, by as much as 68.3%. The measurements carried out showed a significant influence of the content of the applied lignocellulosic fillers (LCF) in the form of raw wheat bran (WB) on the examined properties of the biocompositions and the course of their artificial ageing and biodegradation. Within the range under study, the screw speed of the extruder during the production of biocomposite pellets did not show any significant influence on most of the studied properties of the injection mouldings produced from it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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31 pages, 12383 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Selected Properties of Injection Moulded Sustainable Biocomposites from Poly(butylene succinate) and Wheat Bran
by Emil Sasimowski, Łukasz Majewski and Marta Grochowicz
Materials 2021, 14(22), 7049; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14227049 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1615
Abstract
The paper presents a procedure of the manufacturing and complex analysis of the properties of injection mouldings made of polymeric composites based on the poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) matrix with the addition of a natural filler in the form of wheat bran (WB). The [...] Read more.
The paper presents a procedure of the manufacturing and complex analysis of the properties of injection mouldings made of polymeric composites based on the poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) matrix with the addition of a natural filler in the form of wheat bran (WB). The scope of the research included measurements of processing shrinkage and density, analysis of the chemical structure, measurements of the thermal and thermo-mechanical properties (Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TG), Heat Deflection Temperature (HDT), and Vicat Softening Temperature (VST)), and measurements of the mechanical properties (hardness, impact strength, and static tensile test). The measurements were performed using design of experiment (DOE) methods, which made it possible to determine the investigated relationships in the form of polynomials and response surfaces. The mass content of the filler and the extruder screw speed during the production of the biocomposite granulate, which was used for the injection moulding of the test samples, constituted the variable factors adopted in the DOE. The study showed significant differences in the processing, thermal, and mechanical properties studied for individual systems of the DOE. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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15 pages, 3679 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Decomposition of Oxo- and Biodegradable Packaging Using FTIR Spectroscopy
by Florentyna Markowicz and Agata Szymańska-Pulikowska
Materials 2021, 14(21), 6449; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14216449 - 27 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2352
Abstract
The strength and resistance of plastics at the end of their service life can hinder their degradation. The solution to this problem may be materials made of biodegradable and oxo-biodegradable plastics. The aim of this research was to determine the degree and nature [...] Read more.
The strength and resistance of plastics at the end of their service life can hinder their degradation. The solution to this problem may be materials made of biodegradable and oxo-biodegradable plastics. The aim of this research was to determine the degree and nature of changes in the composition and structure of composted biodegradable and oxo-biodegradable bags. The research involved shopping bags and waste bags available on the Polish market. The composting of the samples was conducted in an industrial composting plant. As a result of the research, only some of the composted samples decomposed. After composting, all samples were analysed using FTIR (Fourier Transformation Infrared) spectroscopy. Carbonyl index and hierarchical cluster analysis method was used to detect similarities between the spectra of the new samples. The analysis of the obtained results showed that FTIR spectroscopy is a method that can be used to confirm the degradation and detect similarities in the structure of the analysed materials. The analysis of spectra obtained with the use of FTIR spectroscopy indicated the presence of compounds that may be a potential source of compost contamination. Plastics with certificates confirming their biodegradability and compostability should be completely biodegradable, i.e., each element used in their production should be biodegradable and safe for the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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22 pages, 4894 KiB  
Article
Antibacterial Films Based on Polylactide with the Addition of Quercetin and Poly(Ethylene Glycol)
by Ewa Olewnik-Kruszkowska, Magdalena Gierszewska, Agnieszka Richert, Sylwia Grabska-Zielińska, Anna Rudawska and Mohamed Bouaziz
Materials 2021, 14(7), 1643; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14071643 - 27 Mar 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2684
Abstract
A series of new films with antibacterial properties has been obtained by means of solvent casting method. Biodegradable materials including polylactide (PLA), quercetin (Q) acting as an antibacterial compound and polyethylene glycol (PEG) acting as a plasticizer have been used in the process. [...] Read more.
A series of new films with antibacterial properties has been obtained by means of solvent casting method. Biodegradable materials including polylactide (PLA), quercetin (Q) acting as an antibacterial compound and polyethylene glycol (PEG) acting as a plasticizer have been used in the process. The effect of quercetin as well as the amount of PEG on the structural, thermal, mechanical and antibacterial properties of the obtained materials has been determined. It was found that an addition of quercetin significantly influences thermal stability. It should be stressed that samples containing the studied flavonoid are characterized by a higher Young modulus and elongation at break than materials consisting only of PLA and PEG. Moreover, the introduction of 1% of quercetin grants antibacterial properties to the new materials. Recorded results showed that the amount of plasticizer did not influence the antibacterial properties; it does, however, cause changes in physicochemical properties of the obtained materials. These results prove that quercetin could be used as an antibacterial compound and simultaneously improve mechanical and thermal properties of polylactide-based films. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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16 pages, 10244 KiB  
Article
Characterization of a Sandwich PLGA-Gallic Acid-PLGA Coating on Mg Alloy ZK60 for Bioresorbable Coronary Artery Stents
by Li-Han Lin, Hung-Pang Lee and Ming-Long Yeh
Materials 2020, 13(23), 5538; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13235538 - 04 Dec 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2360
Abstract
Absorbable magnesium stents have become alternatives for treating restenosis owing to their better mechanical properties than those of bioabsorbable polymer stents. However, without modification, magnesium alloys cannot provide the proper degradation rate required to match the vascular reform speed. Gallic acid is a [...] Read more.
Absorbable magnesium stents have become alternatives for treating restenosis owing to their better mechanical properties than those of bioabsorbable polymer stents. However, without modification, magnesium alloys cannot provide the proper degradation rate required to match the vascular reform speed. Gallic acid is a phenolic acid with attractive biological functions, including anti-inflammation, promotion of endothelial cell proliferation, and inhibition of smooth muscle cell growth. Thus, in the present work, a small-molecule eluting coating is designed using a sandwich-like configuration with a gallic acid layer enclosed between poly (d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) layers. This coating was deposited on ZK60 substrate, a magnesium alloy that is used to fabricate bioresorbable coronary artery stents. Electrochemical analysis showed that the corrosion rate of the specimen was ~2000 times lower than that of the bare counterpart. The released gallic acid molecules from sandwich coating inhibit oxidation by capturing free radicals, selectively promote the proliferation of endothelial cells, and inhibit smooth muscle cell growth. In a cell migration assay, sandwich coating delayed wound closure in smooth muscle cells. The sandwich coating not only improved the corrosion resistance but also promoted endothelialization, and it thus has great potential for the development of functional vascular stents that prevent late-stent restenosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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15 pages, 2113 KiB  
Article
Development of Eco-Sustainable PBAT-Based Blown Films and Performance Analysis for Food Packaging Applications
by Arianna Pietrosanto, Paola Scarfato, Luciano Di Maio and Loredana Incarnato
Materials 2020, 13(23), 5395; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13235395 - 27 Nov 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3926
Abstract
In this work, eco-sustainable blown films with improved performance, suitable for flexible packaging applications requiring high ductility, were developed and characterized. Films were made by blending two bioplastics with complementary properties—the ductile and flexible poly(butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and the rigid and brittle [...] Read more.
In this work, eco-sustainable blown films with improved performance, suitable for flexible packaging applications requiring high ductility, were developed and characterized. Films were made by blending two bioplastics with complementary properties—the ductile and flexible poly(butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and the rigid and brittle poly(lactic acid) (PLA)—at a 60/40 mass ratio. With the aim of improving the blends’ performance, the effects of two types of PLA, differing for viscosity and stereoregularity, and the addition of a commercial polymer chain extender (Joncryl®), were analyzed. The use of the PLA with a viscosity ratio closer to PBAT and lower stereoregularity led to a finer morphology and better interfacial adhesion between the phases, and the addition of the chain extender further reduced the size of the dispersed phase domains, with beneficial effects on the mechanical response of the produced films. The best system composition, made by the blend of PBAT, amorphous PLA, and the compatibilizer, proved to have improved mechanical properties, with a good balance between stiffness and ductility and also good transparency and sealability, which are desirable features for flexible packaging applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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16 pages, 4488 KiB  
Article
Influence of Tea Tree Essential Oil and Poly(ethylene glycol) on Antibacterial and Physicochemical Properties of Polylactide-Based Films
by Iwona Tarach, Ewa Olewnik-Kruszkowska, Agnieszka Richert, Magdalena Gierszewska and Anna Rudawska
Materials 2020, 13(21), 4953; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13214953 - 04 Nov 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2680
Abstract
The aim of the study was to establish the influence of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) on the properties of potential biodegradable packaging materials with antibacterial properties, based on polylactide (PLA) and tea tree essential oil (TTO). The obtained polymeric films consisted of PLA, a [...] Read more.
The aim of the study was to establish the influence of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) on the properties of potential biodegradable packaging materials with antibacterial properties, based on polylactide (PLA) and tea tree essential oil (TTO). The obtained polymeric films consisted of PLA, a natural biocide, and tea tree essential oil (5–20 wt. %) was prepared with or without an addition of 5 wt. % PEG. The PLA-based materials have been tested, taking into account their morphology, and their thermal, mechanical and antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. It was established that the introduction of a plasticizer into the PLA–TTO systems leads to an increase in tensile strength, resistance to deformation, as well an increased thermal stability, in comparison to films modified using only TTO. The incorporation of 5 wt. % PEG in the PLA solution containing 5 wt. % TTO allowed us to obtain a material exhibiting a satisfactory antibacterial effect on both groups of representative bacteria. The presented results indicated a beneficial effect of PEG on the antibacterial and functional properties of materials with the addition of TTO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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19 pages, 5366 KiB  
Article
Whey Protein Concentrate/Isolate Biofunctional Films Modified with Melanin from Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Seeds
by Łukasz Łopusiewicz, Emilia Drozłowska, Paulina Trocer, Mateusz Kostek, Mariusz Śliwiński, Marta H. F. Henriques, Artur Bartkowiak and Peter Sobolewski
Materials 2020, 13(17), 3876; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13173876 - 02 Sep 2020
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3351
Abstract
Valorization of food industry waste and plant residues represents an attractive path towards obtaining biodegradable materials and achieving “zero waste” goals. Here, melanin was isolated from watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) seeds and used as a modifier for whey protein concentrate and isolate [...] Read more.
Valorization of food industry waste and plant residues represents an attractive path towards obtaining biodegradable materials and achieving “zero waste” goals. Here, melanin was isolated from watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) seeds and used as a modifier for whey protein concentrate and isolate films (WPC and WPI) at two concentrations (0.1% and 0.5%). The modification with melanin enhanced the ultraviolet (UV) blocking, water vapor barrier, swelling, and mechanical properties of the WPC/WPI films, in addition to affecting the apparent color. The modified WPC/WPI films also exhibited high antioxidant activity, but no cytotoxicity. Overall, the effects were melanin concentration-dependent. Thus, melanin from watermelon seeds can be used as a functional modifier to develop bioactive biopolymer films with good potential to be exploited in food packaging and biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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13 pages, 5187 KiB  
Article
Laser Texturing as a Way of Influencing the Micromechanical and Biological Properties of the Poly(L-Lactide) Surface
by Magdalena Tomanik, Magdalena Kobielarz, Jarosław Filipiak, Maria Szymonowicz, Agnieszka Rusak, Katarzyna Mroczkowska, Arkadiusz Antończak and Celina Pezowicz
Materials 2020, 13(17), 3786; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13173786 - 27 Aug 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2239
Abstract
Laser-based technologies are extensively used for polymer surface patterning and/or texturing. Different micro- and nanostructures can be obtained thanks to a wide range of laser types and beam parameters. Cell behavior on various types of materials is an extensively investigated phenomenon in biomedical [...] Read more.
Laser-based technologies are extensively used for polymer surface patterning and/or texturing. Different micro- and nanostructures can be obtained thanks to a wide range of laser types and beam parameters. Cell behavior on various types of materials is an extensively investigated phenomenon in biomedical applications. Polymer topography such as height, diameter, and spacing of the patterning will cause different cell responses, which can also vary depending on the utilized cell types. Structurization can highly improve the biological performance of the material without any need for chemical modification. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of CO2 laser irradiation of poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) thin films on the surface microhardness, roughness, wettability, and cytocompatibility. The conducted testing showed that CO2 laser texturing of PLLA provides the ability to adjust the structural and physical properties of the PLLA surface to the requirements of the cells despite significant changes in the mechanical properties of the laser-treated surface polymer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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16 pages, 2162 KiB  
Article
Studies on the Uncrosslinked Fraction of PLA/PBAT Blends Modified by Electron Radiation
by Rafał Malinowski, Krzysztof Moraczewski and Aneta Raszkowska-Kaczor
Materials 2020, 13(5), 1068; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13051068 - 28 Feb 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2321
Abstract
The results of studies on the uncrosslinked fraction of blends of polylactide and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PLA/PBAT) are presented. The blends were crosslinked by using the electron radiation and triallyl isocyanurate (TAIC) at a concentration of 3 wt %. Two kinds of [...] Read more.
The results of studies on the uncrosslinked fraction of blends of polylactide and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PLA/PBAT) are presented. The blends were crosslinked by using the electron radiation and triallyl isocyanurate (TAIC) at a concentration of 3 wt %. Two kinds of samples to be investigated were prepared: one contained 80 wt % PLA and the other contained 80 wt % PBAT. Both blends were irradiated with the doses of 10, 40, or 90 kGy. The uncrosslinked fraction was separated from the crosslinked one. When dried, they were subjected to quantitative analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measurements, an analysis of variations in the average molecular weight, and the determination of thermal properties. It was found that the electron radiation caused various effects in the studied samples, which depended on the magnitude of the radiation dose and the weight fractions of the components of the particular blends. This was evidenced by the occurrence of the uncrosslinked fractions of different amounts, a different molecular weight distribution, and the different thermal properties of the samples. It was also concluded that the observed effects were caused by the fact that the processes of crosslinking and degradation took place mostly in PLA, while PBAT appeared to be less susceptible to the influence of the electron radiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification and Processing of Biodegradable Polymers)
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