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Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2023) | Viewed by 15090

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Andrey Belyakov

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor

Laboratory of Mechanical Properties of Nanostructured Materials and Superalloys, Belgorod National Research University, Pobeda 85, Belgorod 308015, Russia
Interests: structural steels and alloys; microstructure; grain boundaries; dislocation substructure; deformation and annealing behavior; strength and plasticity
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Anna Bodyakova

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Guest Editor

1. Laboratory of Mechanical Properties of Nanostructured Materials and Superalloys, Belgorod State University, 308015 Belgorod, Russia;
2. MISIS Catalysis Lab, National University of Science and Technology MISIS, Leninsky 4, 119991 Moscow, Russia
Interests: structural and functional alloys; deformation microstructures; strain hardening; dispersion strengthening; heat treatment; aging; grain growth and recrystallization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Structural steels and alloys represent a wide domain of materials whose development directly affects human civilization. Mechanical behavior is the principal property of structural steels and alloys. In turn, the mechanical properties of metallic materials depend significantly on their microstructures, including crystallographic and metallographic textures, phase content and particle distribution, dislocation substructure and internal stresses, etc. Therefore, studies on structure–property relationships are of great practical importance. The development of structural steels and alloys with favorable mechanical properties requires comprehensive investigation of regularities of microstructure evolution as a function of chemical composition during material processing/manufacturing and various post-processing treatments. The effect of processing regimes/conditions and methods on the microstructures evolved in metals and alloys should be studied in detail to supply materials engineers with deep fundamental and practical knowledge in order to assist the development of advanced structural materials with enhanced mechanical properties. The aim of this Special Issue, ‘’Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys’’, is to collect the hottest achievements in theoretical and experimental investigations of microstructures and their effect on mechanical properties of various metallic materials, focusing on frontiers in processing and characterization of structural steels and alloys. Papers dealing with experimental investigation, simulation, and analysis of structure–property relationships in structural steels and alloys during exploitation are also welcome.

Prof. Dr. Andrey Belyakov
Dr. Anna Bodyakova
Guest Editors

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Keywords

structural steels and alloys
thermomechanical treatmet
deformation and annealing behavior
microstructures
textures
phase content
dislocation substructures
mechanical properties
structure–property relationship
strength and plasticity

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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2 pages, 164 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys

by Anna Bodyakova and Andrey Belyakov

Materials 2023, 16(14), 5188; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16145188 - 24 Jul 2023

Viewed by 507

Abstract

Structural steels and alloys represent a wide domain of materials whose development directly affects human civilization [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

16 pages, 6687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Martensite/Bainite Dual Phase-Content on the Mechanical Properties of EA4T High-Speed Axle Steel

by Yan Zhang, Yu Cao, Guangjie Huang, Yanyang Wang, Qilei Li and Jie He

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4657; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16134657 - 28 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 918

Abstract

In this work, we have investigated the effect of martensite/bainite dual phase content on the mechanical properties of EA4T high-speed axle steel. For evaluation and control of the strength, ductility, and toughness of steel, the microstructure of lath martensite (LM) and granular bainite (GB) was clarified through an optical microscope (OM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Besides, the tensile fracture morphology was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For this purpose, this study conducted a quantitative analysis of the LM and GB fractions using the Pro Imaging software-2018 of OM. The remarkable effect of the LM/GB structure on mechanical properties is discussed. The results have shown that by increasing the volume fraction of the GB structure, the LM structure is refined and its microhardness and strength are improved. Meanwhile, the micro strength of LM follows the Hall–Petch relationship with the lath martensite packet size. Subsequently, the mechanical property prediction model of EA4T steel based on the LM/GB content was established by regression analysis of all experiment dates. When the LM fraction in the steel is about 40–70%, a superior combination of strength, ductility, and toughness can be obtained in EA4T steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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20 pages, 7316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strength–Toughness of a Low-Alloy 0.25C Steel Treated by Q&P Processing

by Evgeniy Tkachev, Sergey Borisov, Yuliya Borisova, Tatiana Kniaziuk, Sergey Gaidar and Rustam Kaibyshev

Materials 2023, 16(10), 3851; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16103851 - 19 May 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1099

Abstract

Quenching and partitioning (Q&P) treatments were applied to 0.25C steel to produce the microstructures that exhibit an improved balance of mechanical properties. The simultaneous bainitic transformation and carbon enrichment of retained austenite (RA) during the partitioning stage at 350 °C result in the coexistence of RA islands with irregular shapes embedded in bainitic ferrite and film-like RA in the martensitic matrix. The decomposition of coarse RA islands and the tempering of primary martensite during partitioning is accompanied by a decrease in the dislocation density and the precipitation/growth of η-carbide in the lath interiors of primary martensite. The best combinations of a yield strength above 1200 MPa and an impact toughness of about 100 J were obtained in the steel samples quenched to 210–230 °C and subjected to partitioning at 350 °C for 100–600 s. A detailed analysis of the microstructures and the mechanical properties of the steel subjected to Q&P, water quenching, and isothermal treatment revealed that the ideal strength–toughness combinations could be attributed to the mixture of the tempered lath martensite with finely dispersed and stabilized RA and the particles of η-carbide located in the lath interiors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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14 pages, 6249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Casting Technique and Severe Straining on the Microstructure, Electrical Conductivity, Mechanical Properties and Thermal Stability of the Al–1.7 wt.% Fe Alloy

by Andrey Medvedev, Olga Zhukova, Nariman Enikeev, Vil Kazykhanov, Victor Timofeev and Maxim Murashkin

Materials 2023, 16(8), 3067; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16083067 - 13 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1348

Abstract

This paper features the changes in microstructure and properties of an Al–Fe alloy produced by casting with different solidification rates followed by severe plastic deformation and rolling. Particularly, different states of the as-cast Al–1.7 wt.% Fe alloy, obtained by conventional casting into a graphite mold (CC) and continuous casting into an electromagnetic mold (EMC), as well as after equal-channel angular pressing and subsequent cold rolling, were studied. Due to crystallization during casting into a graphite mold, particles of the Al₆Fe phase are predominantly formed in the cast alloy, while casting into an electromagnetic mold leads to the formation of a mixture of particles, predominantly of the Al₂Fe phase. The implementation of the two-stage processing by equal-channel angular pressing and cold rolling through the subsequent development of the ultrafine-grained structures ensured the achievement of the tensile strength and electrical conductivity of 257 MPa and 53.3% IACS in the CC alloy and 298 MPa and 51.3% IACS in the EMC alloy, respectively. Additional cold rolling led to a further reduction in grain size and refinement of particles in the second phase, making it possible to maintain a high level of strength after annealing at 230 °C for 1 h. The combination of high mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal stability can make these Al–Fe alloys a promising conductor material in addition to the commercial Al–Mg–Si and Al–Zr systems, depending on the evaluation of engineering cost and efficiency in industrial production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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13 pages, 16501 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Strain Rate on Hydrogen-Assisted Deformation Behavior and Microstructure in AISI 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel

by Elena Astafurova, Anastasiya Fortuna, Evgenii Melnikov and Sergey Astafurov

Materials 2023, 16(8), 2983; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16082983 - 09 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1416

Abstract

The influence of strain rate in the interval of (10⁻⁵–10⁻³) 1/s on room temperature tensile behavior, dislocation arrangement, deformation mechanisms, and fracture of austenitic stainless steel AISI 316L electrochemically charged with hydrogen was investigated. Independently on strain rate, hydrogen charging provides the increase in the yield strength of the specimens due to a solid solution hardening of austenite, but it slightly influences deformation behavior and strain hardening of the steel. Simultaneously, hydrogen charging assists surface embrittlement of the specimens during straining and reduces an elongation to failure, which both are strain rate-dependent parameters. Hydrogen embrittlement index decreases with increase in strain rate, which testifies the importance of hydrogen transport with dislocations during plastic deformation. The stress–relaxation tests directly confirm the hydrogen-enhanced increase in the dislocation dynamics at low strain rates. The interaction of the hydrogen atoms with dislocations and hydrogen-associated plastic flow are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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14 pages, 3744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Rotary Swaging on the Structure, Mechanical Characteristics and Aging Behavior of Cu-0.5%Cr-0.08%Zr Alloy

by Natalia Martynenko, Olga Rybalchenko, Anna Bodyakova, Dmitriy Prosvirnin, Georgy Rybalchenko, Mikhail Morozov, Vladimir Yusupov and Sergey Dobatkin

Materials 2023, 16(1), 105; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16010105 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1419

Abstract

A study of the effect of rotary swaging (RS) on the microstructure and properties of the pre-extruded and pre-quenched Cu-0.5%Cr-0.08%Zr alloy was performed. RS leads to the formation of an ultrafine-grained (UFG) microstructure. UFG structure formation caused by RS increases the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) up to 443 ± 5 MPa and 597 ± 9 MPa for pre-quenched and pre-extruded alloys, respectively. Additionally, the reduction in ductility occurs after RS. It should be noted that UTS is increased for a pre-quenched alloy, while the strength of a pre-extruded alloy is dropped. The growth of UTS for the pre-quenched alloy is associated with the precipitation of fine Cr particles, whereas the recovery processes in the pre-extruded alloy induce the reduction in its UTS. An additional advantage of RS is an increase in the fatigue limit of the pre-quenched alloy up to 265 MPa, and of the pre-extruded alloy up to 345 MPa. The combination of extrusion and RS allows for the increase of the UTS of the Cu-0.5%Cr-0.08%Zr alloy up to 597 ± 9 MPa, while the levels of ductility and electrical conductivity are 10.9 ± 0.9% and 82.0 ± 1.7% IACS, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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15 pages, 19414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Complex Strengthening on the Continuous Cooling Transformation Behavior of High-Strength Rebar

by Jingtian You, Zhiying Li, Jie Wang, Changrong Li, Zeyun Zeng, Shiwang Li and Sheng Huang

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8940; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15248940 - 14 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 957

Abstract

The effects of niobium and composite strengthening on the phase transformation characteristics and precipitation behavior of continuous cooling transformation of high-strength rebar during thermal deformation and subsequent cooling were investigated. The results show that when the cooling rate was within 0.3–5 °C/s, ferrite transformation and pearlite transformation occurred in the experimental steels. The Nb content increased to 0.062 wt.%, and the starting temperature of the ferrite transformation decreased. Meanwhile, the ferrite phase transformation zone gradually expanded, and the pearlite phase transformation zone gradually narrowed with the increase in the cooling rate. When the cooling rate was 1 °C/s, bainite transformation began to occur, and the amount of transformation increased with the increase in the cooling rate. It was found that the main precipitates in the experimental steels were (Nb, Ti, V)C, with an average particle size of about 10–50 nm. When the Nb content was increased to 0.062 wt.% and the cooling rate was increased to 5 °C/s, the ferrite grain size was reduced from 19.5 to 7.5 μm, and the particle size of the precipitate (Nb, Ti, V)C could be effectively reduced. The strength of the steel was significantly improved, but the elongation of the steel was reduced. However, the comprehensive mechanical properties of 0.062 wt.% Nb experimental steel was significantly improved at a cooling rate of 5 °C/s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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13 pages, 6539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regularities of Microstructure Evolution in a Cu-Cr-Zr Alloy during Severe Plastic Deformation

by Anna Bodyakova, Maksim Tkachev, Georgy I. Raab, Rustam Kaibyshev and Andrey N. Belyakov

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5745; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15165745 - 20 Aug 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1368

Abstract

The effect of severe plastic deformation by the conforming process of equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE-Conform) followed by cold rolling on the microstructures developed in a Cu-0.1Cr-0.1Zr alloy was investigated. Following the ECAE-Conform of 1 to 8 passes (corresponding strains were 0.8 to 6.4) cold rolling to a total strain of 4 was accompanied by substantial grain refinement and strengthening. An average grain size tended to approach 160 nm with an increase in the rolling reduction. An increase in the ECAE-Conform strain promoted the grain refinement during subsequent cold rolling. The fraction of the ultrafine grains with a size of 160 nm after cold rolling to a strain of 4 increased from 0.12 to 0.52 as the number of ECAE-Conform passes increased from 1 to 8. Correspondingly, the yield strength increased above 550 MPa. The strengthening could be expressed by a Hall–Petch type relationship with a grain size strengthening factor of 0.11 MPa m^0.5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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18 pages, 14122 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tempforming Strengthening of a Low-Alloy Steel

by Anastasiia Dolzhenko, Rustam Kaibyshev and Andrey Belyakov

Materials 2022, 15(15), 5241; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15155241 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1267

Abstract

Low-alloy structural steels subjected to quenching and tempering to achieve high strength possess a common drawback associated with low-impact toughness at low temperatures. An additional warm rolling, i.e., tempforming, is a promising approach to strengthen the rolled semi-products along with increasing their impact toughness. The effect of tempforming at 823–923 K on the microstructures and the mechanical properties of a low-alloy steel was studied in comparison with ordinary tempering at the same temperatures. The tempformed microstructures consisted of highly flattened grains with a transverse grain size of 245 nm to 360 nm depending on tempering temperature. A decrease in the transverse grain size with a decreasing temperature was accompanied by an increase in the total dislocation density (including sub-boundary dislocations) from 3.3 × 10¹⁵ m⁻² to 5.9 × 10¹⁵ m⁻². The steel samples subjected to tempforming exhibited enhanced mechanical properties. The yield strength increased by more than 300 MPa, approaching about 1200–1500 MPa depending on tempforming temperature. Moreover, strengthening by tempforming was accompanied by an increase in the impact toughness, especially inthe low temperature range down to 77 K, where the impact toughness was above 80 J cm⁻². Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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13 pages, 4334 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Diamond Particle-Reinforced Copper-Iron Sandwich Composites Prepared by Powder Metallurgy

by Jian Sun, Boyi Jiang, Wanzhong Li, Xiaole Cheng, Hui Liu and Ziyang Li

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2424; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15072424 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1565

Abstract

Synthetic diamond particle-reinforced copper-iron composites (SD/Cu-Fe) were produced by the powder metallurgical method for stone cutting applications, and the microstructure, density, compactness, hardness, flexure strength, and wear resistance of the composites were characterized in this work. The results showed that the diamond particles were relatively uniformly distributed in most areas of the copper matrix and the crystal shape of diamond particles were relatively intact in the sintering temperature range from 740 °C to 780 °C. The interfaces between the diamond particles and copper matrix, as well as the interfaces between the copper matrix and iron layer, were well bonded without significant gaps. The physical properties of composites increased first and then decreased with the sintering temperature. When the sintering temperature was 770 °C, the related properties reached the best. Diamond played a key role in improving the properties of the SD/Cu-Fe sandwich composite. This work provides a basis for the research and development of high-performance diamond-reinforced copper-based iron sandwich composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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16 pages, 5529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors of Stress Concentration around Spherical Cavity Embedded in Cylinder Subjected to Internal Pressure

by Mechri Abdelghani, Ghomari Tewfik, Maciej Witek and Djouadi Djahida

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3057; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14113057 - 03 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2231

Abstract

In this paper, an accurate distribution of stress as well as corresponding factors of stress concentration determination around a spherical cavity, which is considered as embedded in a cylinder exposed to the internal pressure only, is presented. This approach was applied at three main meridians of the porosity by combining the Eshelby’s equivalent inclusion method with Mura and Chang’s methodology employing the jump condition across the interface of the cavity and matrix, respectively. The distribution of stresses around the spherical flaw and their concentration factors were formulated in the form of newly formulated analytical relations involving the geometric ratio of the cylinder, such as external radius and thickness, the angle around the cavity, depth of the porosity, as well as the material Poisson ratio. Subsequently, a comparison of the analytical results and the numerical simulation results is applied to validate obtained results. The results show that the stress concentration factors (SCFs) are not constant for an incorporated flaw and vary with both the porosity depth and the Poisson ratio, regardless of whether the cylinder geometric ratio is thin or thick. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels and Alloys)

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