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Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2022) | Viewed by 29099

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Andrea Lazzeri

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Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56122 Pisa, Italy
Interests: materials Science; materials engineering; composites; nanomaterials; polymers; biopolymers; bioplastics; nanobiocomposites; polymer processing; mechanical properties; viscoelasticity; modelling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Maria Beatrice Coltelli

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Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56122 Pisa, Italy
Interests: materials science; polymers; biopolymers; bioplastics; bionanocomposites; nanomaterials; reactive processing; recycling; materials waste management
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Patrizia Cinelli

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Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, Università di Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino 1, 56122 Pisa, Italy
Interests: biodegradable polymers; sustainability; biobased; composites and nanocomposites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Biobased polymers are attracting a great deal of attention because the extension of their use in replacing fossil-based products is promoting a materials selection oriented to carbon neutrality. The improved modulation of their thermomechanical properties through the design of blends, biocomposites, and bionanocomposites, in addition to exploiting reactive processing techniques, is providing materials with high performances and peculiar functionalities. Moreover, the end-of-life management of biobased polymers can be easier than the fossil-based ones, because they can be recyclable, but—depending on their chemical structure and geometrical features—also compostable or degradable in a controlled environment. Hence, on one hand biobased polymers offer the possibility of differentiating processability and properties for matching the requirements of several applications, and on the other hand, the possibility of designing the best end-of-life scenarios for specific products. Although these beneficial new alternatives require a great deal of efforts to be integrated in the current industrial production and waste management systems, many research activities have been dedicated to these topics. The present Issue aims to gather research and review papers dedicated to replacing fossil-based materials with biobased counterparts with suitable properties, considering not only their structural and functional properties but also the environmental benefits of the new products.

Prof. Andrea Lazzeri
Prof. Maria Beatrice Coltelli
Prof. Patrizia Cinelli
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

biobased polymers
bioplastics
biopolymers
biocomposites
bionanocomposites
biodegradation
recycling

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 9238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Functional Bio-Based Coatings Including Chitin Nanofibrils or Polyphenols on Mechanical Properties of Paper Tissues

by Luca Panariello, Maria-Beatrice Coltelli, Simone Giangrandi, María Carmen Garrigós, Ahdi Hadrich, Andrea Lazzeri and Patrizia Cinelli

Polymers 2022, 14(11), 2274; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14112274 - 02 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2774

Abstract

The paper tissue industry is a constantly evolving sector that supplies markets that require products with different specific properties. In order to meet the demand of functional properties, ensuring a green approach at the same time, research on bio-coatings has been very active in recent decades. The attention dedicated to research on functional properties has not been given to the study of the morphological and mechanical properties of the final products. This paper studied the effect of two representative bio-based coatings on paper tissue. Coatings based on chitin nanofibrils or polyphenols were sprayed on paper tissues to provide them, respectively, with antibacterial and antioxidant activity. The chemical structure of the obtained samples was preliminarily compared by ATR-FTIR before and after their application. Coatings were applied on paper tissues and, after drying, their homogeneity was investigated by ATR-FTIR on different surface areas. Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties were found for chitin nanofibrils- and polyphenols-treated paper tissues, respectively. The mechanical properties of treated and untreated paper tissues were studied, considering as a reference the same tissue paper sample treated only with water. Different mechanical tests were performed on tissues, including penetration, tensile, and tearing tests in two perpendicular directions, to consider the anisotropy of the produced tissues for industrial applications. The morphology of uncoated and coated paper tissues was analysed by field emission scanning electron microscopy. Results from mechanical properties evidenced a correlation between morphological and mechanical changes. The addition of polyphenols resulted in a reduction in mechanical resistance, while the addition of chitin enhanced this property. This study evidenced the different effects produced by two novel coatings on paper tissues for personal care in terms of properties and structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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19 pages, 5500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Essential Work of Fracture and Evaluation of the Interfacial Adhesion of Plasticized PLA/PBSA Blends with the Addition of Wheat Bran By-Product

by Laura Aliotta, Alessandro Vannozzi, Patrizia Cinelli, Maria-Beatrice Coltelli and Andrea Lazzeri

Polymers 2022, 14(3), 615; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14030615 - 04 Feb 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1926

Abstract

In this work biocomposites based on plasticized poly(lactic acid) (PLA)–poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA) matrix containing wheat bran fiber (a low value by-product of food industry) were investigated. The effect of the bran addition on the mechanical properties is strictly correlated to the fiber-matrix adhesion and several analytical models, based on static and dynamic tests, were applied in order to estimate the interfacial shear strength of the biocomposites. Finally, the essential work of fracture approach was carried out to investigate the effect of the bran addition on composite fracture toughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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18 pages, 4862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis, Development, and Scaling-Up of Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) Biocomposites with Hazelnuts Shell Powder (HSP)

by Laura Aliotta, Alessandro Vannozzi, Daniele Bonacchi, Maria-Beatrice Coltelli and Andrea Lazzeri

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4080; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234080 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2038

Abstract

In this work, two different typologies of hazelnuts shell powders (HSPs) having different granulometric distributions were melt-compounded into poly(lactic acid) (PLA) matrix. Different HSPs concentration (from 20 up to 40 wt.%) were investigated with the aim to obtain final biocomposites with a high filler quantity, acceptable mechanical properties, and good melt fluidity in order to be processable. For the best composition, the scale-up in a semi-industrial extruder was then explored. Good results were achieved for the scaled-up composites; in fact, thanks to the extruder venting system, the residual moisture is efficiently removed, guaranteeing to the final composites improved mechanical and melt fluidity properties, when compared to the lab-scaled composites. Analytical models were also adopted to predict the trend of mechanical properties (in particular, tensile strength), also considering the effect of HSPs sizes and the role of the interfacial adhesion between the fillers and the matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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18 pages, 6609 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Volume Change during Creep and Micromechanical Deformation Processes in PLA–PBSA Binary Blends

by Laura Aliotta, Vito Gigante, Maria-Beatrice Coltelli and Andrea Lazzeri

Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2379; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13142379 - 20 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2131

Abstract

In this paper, creep measurements were carried out on poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and its blends with poly(butylene succinate-adipate) (PBSA) to investigate the specific micromechanical behavior of these materials, which are promising for replacing fossil-based plastics in several applications. Two different PBSA contents at 15 and 20 wt.% were investigated, and the binary blends were named 85-15 and 80-20, respectively. Measurements of the volume strain, using an optical extensometer, were carried out with a universal testing machine in creep configuration to determine, accompanied by SEM images, the deformation processes occurring in a biopolymeric blend. With the aim of correlating the creep and the dilatation variation, analytical models were applied for the first time in biopolymeric binary blends. By using an Eyring plot, a significant change in the curves was found, and it coincided with the onset of the cavitation/debonding mechanism. Furthermore, starting from the data of the pure PLA matrix, using the Eyring relationship, an apparent stress concentration factor was calculated for PLA-PBSA systems. From this study, it emerged that the introduction of PBSA particles causes an increment in the apparent stress intensity factor, and this can be ascribed to the lower adhesion between the two biopolymers. Furthermore, as also confirmed by SEM analysis, it was found that debonding was the main micromechanical mechanism responsible for the volume variation under creep configuration; it was found that debonding starts earlier (at a lower stress level) for the 85-15 blend. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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20 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogels Based on Poly([2-(acryloxy)ethyl] Trimethylammonium Chloride) and Nanocellulose Applied to Remove Methyl Orange Dye from Water

by Karina Roa, Yesid Tapiero, Musthafa Ottakam Thotiyl and Julio Sánchez

Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2265; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13142265 - 10 Jul 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3360

Abstract

Bio-based hydrogels that adsorb contaminant dyes, such as methyl orange (MO), were synthesized and characterized in this study. The synthesis of poly([2-(acryloyloxy)ethyl] trimethylammonium chloride) and poly(ClAETA) hydrogels containing cellulose nanofibrillated (CNF) was carried out by free-radical polymerization based on a factorial experimental design. The hydrogels were characterized by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and thermogravimetry. Adsorption studies of MO were performed, varying time, pH, CNF concentration, initial dye concentration and reuse cycles, determining that when the hydrogels were reinforced with CNF, the dye removal values reached approximately 96%, and that the material was stable when the maximum swelling capacity was attained. The maximum amount of MO retained per gram of hydrogel (q = mg MO g⁻¹) was 1379.0 mg g⁻¹ for the hydrogel containing 1% (w w⁻¹) CNF. Furthermore, it was found that the absorption capacity of MO dye can be improved when the medium pH tends to be neutral (pH = 7.64). The obtained hydrogels can be applicable for the treatment of water containing anionic dyes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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12 pages, 4742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Mechanical Properties and Mechanism of Natural Rubber Waterstop after Aging in Low-Temperature Environment

by Lin Yu, Shiman Liu, Weiwei Yang and Mengying Liu

Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2119; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132119 - 28 Jun 2021

Viewed by 1984

Abstract

In order to elucidate the aging performance and aging mechanism of a rubber waterstop in low-temperature environments, the rubber waterstops were placed in the freezing test chamber to accelerate aging, and then we tested its tensile strength, elongation, tear strength, compression permanent deformation and hardness at different times. Additionally, the damaged specimens were tested by scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and energy dispersive spectrometry. The results showed that with the growth of aging time, the mechanical properties of the rubber waterstop are reduced. At the same time, many protrusions appeared on the surface of the rubber waterstop, the C element gradually decreased, and the O element gradually increased. During the period of 72–90 days, the content of the C element in the low-temperature air environment significantly decreased compared with that in low-temperature water, while the content of O element increased significantly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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17 pages, 2710 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphorus Release and Adsorption Properties of Polyurethane–Biochar Crosslinked Material as a Filter Additive in Bioretention Systems

by Yike Meng, Yuan Wang and Chuanyue Wang

Polymers 2021, 13(2), 283; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13020283 - 17 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2651

Abstract

Bioretention systems are frequently employed in stormwater treatment to reduce phosphorus pollution and prevent eutrophication. To enhance their efficiency, filter additives are required but the currently used traditional materials cannot meet the primary requirements of excellent hydraulic properties as well as outstanding release and adsorption capacities at the same time. In this research, a polyurethane-biochar crosslinked material was produced by mixing the hardwood biochar (HB) with polyurethane to improve the performance of traditional filter additives. Through basic parameter tests, the saturated water content of polyurethane-biochar crosslinked material (PCB) was doubled and the permeability coefficient of PCB increased by two orders of magnitude. Due to the polyurethane, the leaching speed of phosphorus slowed down in the batching experiments and fewer metal cations leached. Moreover, PCB could adsorb 93–206 mg/kg PO₄³⁻ at a typical PO₄³⁻ concentration in stormwater runoff, 1.32–1.58 times more than HB, during isothermal adsorption experiments. In the simulating column experiments, weaker hydropower reduced the PO₄³⁻ leaching quantities of PCB and had a stable removal rate of 93.84% in phosphate treatment. This study demonstrates the potential use of PCB as a filter additive in a bioretention system to achieve hydraulic goals and improve phosphate adsorption capacities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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22 pages, 5625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/Poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA) Compatibilized Binary Biobased Blends: Melt Fluidity, Morphological, Thermo-Mechanical and Micromechanical Analysis

by Laura Aliotta, Alessandro Vannozzi, Ilaria Canesi, Patrizia Cinelli, Maria-Beatrice Coltelli and Andrea Lazzeri

Polymers 2021, 13(2), 218; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13020218 - 09 Jan 2021

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 5127

Abstract

In this work poly(lactic) acid (PLA)/poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA) biobased binary blends were investigated. PLA/PBSA mixtures with different compositions of PBSA (from 15 up to 40 wt.%) were produced by twin screw-extrusion. A first screening study was performed on these blends that were characterized from the melt fluidity, morphological and thermo-mechanical point of view. Starting from the obtained results, the effect of an epoxy oligomer (EO) (added at 2 wt.%) was further investigated. In this case a novel approach was introduced studying the micromechanical deformation processes by dilatometric uniaxial tensile tests, carried out with a videoextensometer. The characterization was then completed adopting the elasto-plastic fracture approach, by the measurement of the capability of the selected blends to absorb energy at a slow rate. The obtained results showed that EO acts as a good compatibilizer, improving the compatibility of the rubber phase into the PLA matrix. Dilatometric results showed different micromechanical responses for the 80–20 and 60–40 blends (probably linked to the different morphology). The 80–20 showed a cavitational behavior while the 60–40 a deviatoric one. It has been observed that while the addition of EO does not alter the micromechanical response of the 60–40 blend, it profoundly changes the response of the 80–20, that passed to a deviatoric behavior with the EO addition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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14 pages, 3215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Macroscopic Poly Schiff Base-Coated Bacteria Cellulose with High Adsorption Performance

by Lili Ren, Zhihui Yang, Lei Huang, Yingjie He, Haiying Wang and Liyuan Zhang

Polymers 2020, 12(3), 714; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12030714 - 23 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3031

Abstract

Here, a nanofiber-exfoliated bacteria cellulose aerogel with improved water affinity and high mass transfer was synthesized. Consequently, poly Schiff base can be uniformly coated within the body of bacteria cellulose aerogel without the traditional dispersion treatment. The composite aerogel has adequate mechanical and thermal stability and high mass transfer efficiency. Such an aerogel can serve as a superior adsorbent for flow through adsorption of pollution. Typically, the adsorption capacity towards Cr(VI), Cu(II), Re(VII), Conga red, and Orange G reaches as high as 321.5, 256.4, 153.8, 333.3, and 370.3 mg g⁻¹, respectively. Moreover, the adsorption by this composite aerogel is very fast, such that, for example, at just 2 s, the adsorption is almost finished with Cr(VI) adsorption. Moreover, the composite aerogel exhibits a good adsorption-desorption capability. This research will hopefully shed light on the preparation of bacteria cellulose-derived macroscopic materials powerful in not only environmental areas, but also other related applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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Review

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22 pages, 1469 KiB

Open AccessReview

Liquid and Solid Functional Bio-Based Coatings

by Vito Gigante, Luca Panariello, Maria-Beatrice Coltelli, Serena Danti, Kudirat Abidemi Obisesan, Ahdi Hadrich, Andreas Staebler, Serena Chierici, Ilaria Canesi, Andrea Lazzeri and Patrizia Cinelli

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3640; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13213640 - 22 Oct 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5828

Abstract

The development of new bio-based coating materials to be applied on cellulosic and plastic based substrates, with improved performances compared to currently available products and at the same time with improved sustainable end of life options, is a challenge of our times. Enabling cellulose or bioplastics with proper functional coatings, based on biopolymer and functional materials deriving from agro-food waste streams, will improve their performance, allowing them to effectively replace fossil products in the personal care, tableware and food packaging sectors. To achieve these challenging objectives some molecules can be used in wet or solid coating formulations, e.g., cutin as a hydrophobic water- and grease-repellent coating, polysaccharides such as chitosan-chitin as an antimicrobial coating, and proteins as a gas barrier. This review collects the available knowledge on functional coatings with a focus on the raw materials used and methods of dispersion/application. It considers, in addition, the correlation with the desired final properties of the applied coatings, thus discussing their potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers for Environmental Applications)

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