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Recent Advances in Liquid Level Sensors
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Recent Advances in Liquid Level Sensors

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2022) | Viewed by 6117

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Paulo Antunes

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. I3N & Physics Department of the Aveiro University, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
2. Instituto de Telecomunicações, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Interests: optical fiber sensors; e-Health platforms; structural health monitoring; biosensing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Moises R. N. Ribeiro

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Electrical Department, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Vitoria, Brazil
Interests: optical sensors; optical communications; optical networks; computer networks; software-defined networking and network function virtualization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Liquid level measurement is of the utmost importance in many application areas, from industrial to scientific, medical, aerospace, civil, and so on. Among the diverse physical and chemical parameters (e.g., temperature, strain, pressure, deformation, and refractive index) liquid level sensing plays an essential role in relevant industrial applications such as chemical processing, fuel storage and transportation systems, oil tanks/reservoirs, wastewater treatment plants, among many others. This parameter has been measured by different sensing techniques based on acoustic, mechanical, electric and optical technologies. 

Recent advances in more than one technology have been made for liquid level measurement, especially for use in harsh environments such as corrosive, explosive or flammable atmospheres.

This Special Issue is addressed and will accept high-quality articles containing original research and review articles related to all types of sensors with potential use in liquid level measurement. 

Dr. Paulo Antunes
Dr. Moises R. N. Ribeiro
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • electronic and optical sensors based on simple glass level gauge
  • low-cost, miniaturized and selective multiparameter sensors
  • hydrostatic devices such as displacers, bubblers and differential pressure transmitters
  • new approaches toward load-cell-based liquid level measurement
  • advanced ultrasonic level transmitters
  • laser arrays and/or multiwavelength level transmitters
  • MIMO radar-based sensors
  • safer approaches for radiation-based level measurement
  • optical fiber sensors (OFSs)
  • innovative magnetic level gauges
  • magnetostrictive level transmitters.
  • advanced mechanic float sensors
  • innovative solutions using capacitance transmitters
  • fiber interferometric and polarimetric sensors
  • nano- and microstructured and photonic crystal fiber sensors
  • multiplexing and sensor networking
  • distributed sensing
  • Bragg gratings, Fabry–Pérot cavities, plasmonic and Mach Zehnder interferometers
  • advances in signal acquisition and processing for liquid measurement
  • level detection algorithms for measurement accuracy improvement
  • innovative calibration, certification and (e.g., blockchain) trust and authentication
  • multiphasic liquids interface identification and level measurement
  • smart structures and sensors
  • cryogenic liquid level measurement
  • biohazardous, corrosive, explosive or flammable environment use cases

Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 3132 KiB  
Article
Feasibility of a Planar Coil-Based Inductive-Capacitive Water Level Sensor with a Quality-Detection Feature: An Experimental Study
by Lakshmi Areekath, Gaurav Lodha, Subham Kumar Sahana, Boby George, Ligy Philip and Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay
Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5508; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22155508 - 23 Jul 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2027
Abstract
This paper presents a new water-level-sensing mechanism based on planar coils fabricated on a printed circuit board (PCB). In addition to level, the sensor detects any relative increase in conductivity compared to that of clean water, which is an indicator of its quality. [...] Read more.
This paper presents a new water-level-sensing mechanism based on planar coils fabricated on a printed circuit board (PCB). In addition to level, the sensor detects any relative increase in conductivity compared to that of clean water, which is an indicator of its quality. The sensing mechanism utilizes the eddy current induced in the water column, the corresponding change in the coil inductance, and the change in the turn-to-turn capacitance of the coil in the presence of water. Although several level sensors are available, there is none that gives the level and quality information using a single sensing element. Since both water quantity and quality measurements are fundamental in realizing efficient water and wastewater management, obtaining these two parameters from the same sensor is very beneficial. A scalable, planar coil-based sensor that helps achieve this goal is designed, fabricated, and tested in a laboratory setting. The results illustrate that the reactance of the sensor coil measured at a frequency (1 kHz for the prototype) much lower than the self-resonance of the coil gives reliable information about the level of water, while the measurement made at resonance, using an inductance-to-digital converter, is a clear indicator of its conductivity and, hence, quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Liquid Level Sensors)
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13 pages, 4401 KiB  
Article
Force-Displacement Analysis in Diaphragm-Embedded Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
by Arnaldo Leal-Junior, Vitorino Biazi, Carlos Marques and Anselmo Frizera
Sensors 2022, 22(14), 5355; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22145355 - 18 Jul 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1525
Abstract
This paper presented the force and displacement analyses of a diaphragm-embedded fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor. In the first step, a numerical analysis (via finite element method) was performed considering linear elastic materials, where there is a linear variation on the strain in [...] Read more.
This paper presented the force and displacement analyses of a diaphragm-embedded fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor. In the first step, a numerical analysis (via finite element method) was performed considering linear elastic materials, where there is a linear variation on the strain in the optical fiber for both displacement and force (or pressure). In the second step, the experimental analysis was performed using two approaches: (i) controlling the displacement applied in the diaphragm-embedded FBG (while the force is also measured). (ii) Controlling the force applied in the sensor (also with the measurement of the displacement). Results showed reflected optical power variations and wavelength shift following the application of displacement and force. The sensitivities of both wavelength shift and optical power were different (and non-proportional) when displacement and force were compared. However, a higher correlation, determination coefficient (R2) of 0.998, was obtained in the analysis of the wavelength shift as a function of the displacement, which indicated that the strain transmission in the optical fiber is directly related to the strain in the diaphragm, whereas the force has an indirect relation with the strain and depends on the material features. Then, the possibility of simultaneous estimation of force and displacement was investigated, where the linear relation of both parameters (displacement and force) with the wavelength shift and the optical power were obtained in a limited range of displacement and force. In this range, root mean squared errors of 0.37 N and 0.05 mm were obtained for force and displacement, respectively. In addition, the force variation with a step displacement input also shows the possibility of using the proposed FBG device for the characterization of the materials’ viscoelastic features such as phase delay, creep, and stress relaxation, which can be employed for in situ characterization of different viscoelastic materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Liquid Level Sensors)
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30 pages, 14758 KiB  
Article
Fiber-Optic Hydrophone Based on Michelson’s Interferometer with Active Stabilization for Liquid Volume Measurement
by Welton Sthel Duque, Camilo Arturo Rodríguez Díaz, Arnaldo Gomes Leal-Junior and Anselmo Frizera
Sensors 2022, 22(12), 4404; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22124404 - 10 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2081
Abstract
Sensing technologies using optical fibers have been studied and applied since the 1970s in oil and gas, industrial, medical, aerospace, and civil areas. Detecting ultrasound acoustic waves through fiber-optic hydrophone (FOH) sensors can be one solution for continuous measurement of volumes inside production [...] Read more.
Sensing technologies using optical fibers have been studied and applied since the 1970s in oil and gas, industrial, medical, aerospace, and civil areas. Detecting ultrasound acoustic waves through fiber-optic hydrophone (FOH) sensors can be one solution for continuous measurement of volumes inside production tanks used by these industries. This work presents an FOH system composed of two optical fiber coils made with commercial single mode fiber (SMF) working in the sensor head of a Michelson’s interferometer (MI) supported by an active stabilization mechanism that drives another optical coil wound around a piezoelectric actuator (PZT) in the reference arm to mitigate external mechanical and thermal noise from the environment. A 1000 mL glass graduated cylinder filled with water is used as a test tank, inside which the sensor head and an ultrasound source are placed. For detection, amplitudes and phases are measured, and machine learning algorithms predict their respective liquid volumes. The acoustic waves create patterns electronically detected with resolution of 1 mL and sensitivity of 340 mrad/mL and 70 mvolts/mL. The nonlinear behavior of both measurands requires classification, distance metrics, and regression algorithms to define an adequate model. The results show the system can determine liquid volumes with an accuracy of 99.4% using a k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) classification with one neighbor and Manhattan’s distance. Moreover, Gaussian process regression using rational quadratic metrics presented a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.211 mL. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Liquid Level Sensors)
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