Research

29 pages, 9596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of Non-Contact Temperature Distribution Monitoring Solutions for Railway Vehicles in a Sustainability Development System Transport

by Arkadiusz Kampczyk, Wojciech Gamon and Katarzyna Gawlak

Sensors 2022, 22(24), 9624; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22249624 - 08 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2312

Abstract

The implementation of temperature sensors represented by thermal imaging cameras is becoming increasingly rational. It is playing an important role in the socio-economic environment, in industry, scientific-research work. The main objective of the work is to assess the quality of the railway vehicles [...] Read more.

The implementation of temperature sensors represented by thermal imaging cameras is becoming increasingly rational. It is playing an important role in the socio-economic environment, in industry, scientific-research work. The main objective of the work is to assess the quality of the railway vehicles in exploitation and their thermal insulation, localise thermal bridges, and the tightness of the body using the FLIR-E6390 thermal inspection camera. An integration of test methods (research methods) was used including a diagnostic method based on a thermographic study integrated with the system approach method and system failure mode effects analysis (SFMEA). The scientific-research work included studies of seven types of railway vehicles in exploitation. A number of conclusions were reached. Specifically providing implementation of innovative and non-contact temperature distribution monitoring solutions for railway vehicles in a sustainability development system transport. Demonstrated the disparities between the different types of vehicles. Next, the identification of critical elements of their thermal insulation, the location of thermal bridges, and the tightness of the body of the rail vehicles, particularly the doors and inter-unit connections. The study covered the state of consumption of stationary electricity (for non-traction needs), implementing innovative indicators for stationary electricity consumption of railway vehicles as a new approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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16 pages, 9598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wireless Temperature, Relative Humidity and Occupancy Monitoring System for Investigating Overheating in Buildings

by Dóra Szagri, Bálint Dobszay, Balázs Nagy and Zsuzsa Szalay

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8638; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22228638 - 09 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2216

Abstract

With the climate change we are experiencing today, the number and intensity of heatwaves are increasing dramatically, significantly impacting our buildings’ overheating. The majority of the prefabricated concrete panel buildings in Hungary are considered outdated from an energy point of view. These buildings [...] Read more.

With the climate change we are experiencing today, the number and intensity of heatwaves are increasing dramatically, significantly impacting our buildings’ overheating. The majority of the prefabricated concrete panel buildings in Hungary are considered outdated from an energy point of view. These buildings may be at greater risk from extreme weather events. To examine this, long-term monitoring measurements are needed. Therefore, we developed a unique, reliable, and cost-effective wireless monitoring system, which can track in real time the indoor air quality data (temperature, relative humidity, CO₂) of the investigated apartment building, as well as users’ habits, such as resident presence, window opening, and blind movement. The data were used to analyse and quantify the summer overheating of the dwelling and user habits. The measurements showed that the average temperature in all rooms was above 26 °C, and there were several occasions when the temperature exceeded 30 °C. Overheating in apartment buildings in summer is a significant problem that needs to be addressed. Further investigation of ventilation habits will help develop favourable ventilation strategies, and using these measurements in dynamic simulations will also help improve the models’ validity for further studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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10 pages, 3772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Temperature Sensors for Detection of Heat Sources Using Additive Printing Method

by Ju-Hun Ahn, Han-Na Kim, Jin Yeon Cho, Jeong Ho Kim and Chang-Yull Lee

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8308; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22218308 - 29 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1381

Abstract

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) inkjet printing is an efficient technique for printing multiple sensors in a multifaceted area. It can be applied to various fields according to the shape of the printing result and the algorithm employed. In this study, temperature sensors capable of detecting [...] Read more.

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) inkjet printing is an efficient technique for printing multiple sensors in a multifaceted area. It can be applied to various fields according to the shape of the printing result and the algorithm employed. In this study, temperature sensors capable of detecting heat sources were fabricated. Inks suitable for EHD inkjet printing were produced, and optimal parameters for printing were determined. Printing was performed using the corresponding parameters, and various printing results were obtained. Furthermore, an experiment was conducted to confirm the temperature measurement characteristics of the results and the tolerance of the sensor. Grid-type sensors were fabricated based on the results, and the sensor characteristics were confirmed in an orthogonal form. Heat was applied to arbitrary positions. Resistance to changes due to heat was measured, and the location at which the heat was generated was detected by varying the change in resistance. Through this study, efficient heat control can be achieved, as the location of the heat source can be identified quickly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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16 pages, 6837 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inkjet-Printed Temperature Sensors Characterized according to Standards

by Jonas Jäger, Adrian Schwenck, Daniela Walter, André Bülau, Kerstin Gläser and André Zimmermann

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8145; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22218145 - 24 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2031

Abstract

This paper describes the characterization of inkjet-printed resistive temperature sensors according to the international standard IEC 61928-2. The goal is to evaluate such sensors comprehensively, to identify important manufacturing processes, and to generate data for inkjet-printed temperature sensors according to the mentioned standard [...] Read more.

This paper describes the characterization of inkjet-printed resistive temperature sensors according to the international standard IEC 61928-2. The goal is to evaluate such sensors comprehensively, to identify important manufacturing processes, and to generate data for inkjet-printed temperature sensors according to the mentioned standard for the first time, which will enable future comparisons across different publications. Temperature sensors were printed with a silver nanoparticle ink on injection-molded parts. After printing, the sensors were sintered with different parameters to investigate their influences on the performance. Temperature sensors were characterized in a temperature range from 10 °C to 85 °C at 60% RH. It turned out that the highest tested sintering temperature of 200 °C, the longest dwell time of 24 h, and a coating with fluoropolymer resulted in the best sensor properties, which are a high temperature coefficient of resistance, low hysteresis, low non-repeatability, and low maximum error. The determined hysteresis, non-repeatability, and maximum error are below 1.4% of the full-scale output (FSO), and the temperature coefficient of resistance is 1.23–1.31 × 10⁻³ K⁻¹. These results show that inkjet printing is a capable technology for the manufacturing of temperature sensors for applications up to 85 °C, such as lab-on-a-chip devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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16 pages, 5180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical and Mechanical Properties of Layered Infrared Interference Filters

by Michał Bembenek, Mykola Makoviichuk, Ivan Shatskyi, Liubomyr Ropyak, Igor Pritula, Leonid Gryn and Volodymyr Belyakovskyi

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8105; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22218105 - 22 Oct 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 1599

Abstract

The design and manufacturing technology of interference-absorbing short-wave filters based on a layered composition of Si–SiO on a sapphire substrate of various shapes was developed. A transition layer of SiO was applied to the surface of the substrate, alternating with layers of Si–SiO [...] Read more.

The design and manufacturing technology of interference-absorbing short-wave filters based on a layered composition of Si–SiO on a sapphire substrate of various shapes was developed. A transition layer of SiO was applied to the surface of the substrate, alternating with layers of Si–SiO with an odd number of quarter-wave layers of materials with high (Si) and low refractive indices (SiO), and the application of an outer layer of SiO as an appropriate control of the materials’ thickness. The optical properties of the infrared light filter were studied. It was established that the created design of the light filter provides the minimum light transmission in the visible region of the spectrum from 0.38 to 0.78 µm and the maximum in the near infrared region from 1.25 to 5 µm and has stable optical indicators. A method for studying the stress–strain state and strength of a multilayer coating of a light filter under the action of a local arbitrarily oriented load was developed. For simplicity in the analysis and for obtaining results in the analytical form, the one-dimensional model of the configuration “multilayer covering—firm substrate” constructed earlier by authors was used. From a mechanical point of view, the upper protective layer of the multilayer coating was modeled by a flexible plate, and the inner operational composite N-layer was subjected to Winkler’s hypothesis about the proportionality of stresses and elastic displacements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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8 pages, 2957 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Experimental and Numerical Validation of Whispering Gallery Resonators as Optical Temperature Sensors

by Franzette Paz-Buclatin, Ylenia Perera-Suárez, Inocencio R. Martín, Susana Ríos, Omar de Varona, Airán Ródenas and Leopoldo L. Martin

Sensors 2022, 22(20), 7831; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22207831 - 15 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1261

Abstract

This study experimentally and numerically validates the commonly employed technique of laser-induced heating of a material in optical temperature sensing studies. Furthermore, the Er3+-doped glass microspheres studied in this work can be employed as remote optical temperature sensors. Laser-induced self-heating is a useful [...] Read more.

This study experimentally and numerically validates the commonly employed technique of laser-induced heating of a material in optical temperature sensing studies. Furthermore, the Er3+-doped glass microspheres studied in this work can be employed as remote optical temperature sensors. Laser-induced self-heating is a useful technique commonly employed in optical temperature sensing research when two temperature-dependent parameters can be correlated, such as in fluorescence intensity ratio vs. interferometric calibration, allowing straightforward sensor characterization. A frequent assumption in such experiments is that thermal homogeneity within the sensor volume, that is, a sound hypothesis when dealing with small volume to surface area ratio devices such as microresonators, but has never been validated. In order to address this issue, we performed a series of experiments and simulations on a microsphere supporting whispering gallery mode resonances, laser heating it at ambient pressure and medium vacuum while tracking the resonance wavelength shift and comparing it to the shift rate observed in a thermal bath. The simulations were done starting only from the material properties of the bulk glass to simulate the physical phenomena of laser heating and resonance of the microsphere glass. Despite the simplicity of the model, both measurements and simulations are in good agreement with a highly homogeneous temperature within the resonator, thus validating the laser heating technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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18 pages, 4030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Possibility of Using Cenospheres in the Production of Cement Mortars for Use in an Elevated Temperature Environment

by Gabriela Rutkowska, Paweł Ogrodnik, Mariusz Żółtowski, Aleksandra Powęzka and Karolina Kaszewska

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7518; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22197518 - 04 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1368

Abstract

The topic of research included in this article was the evaluation of the influence of cenospheres on selected parameters of mortar cement. Samples were designed as CEM I 42.5 R Portland cement with the application of different additive amounts. In the experimental work, [...] Read more.

The topic of research included in this article was the evaluation of the influence of cenospheres on selected parameters of mortar cement. Samples were designed as CEM I 42.5 R Portland cement with the application of different additive amounts. In the experimental work, the consistency, compressive strength, and bending strength were tested after 28 and 56 days of maturation, and after heating temperatures of 20, 300, 500, and 700 °C. The compressive strength was tested on half beams (40 × 40 × 160 mm). Using the obtained results, the properties of the mortars were compared. The research confirmed the possibility of producing cenosphere-modified cement mortars. Cenospheres used in the preparation of cement mortar negatively affected the bending and compressive strength with increasing temperature (20, 300, 500, 700 °C) and increasing content of this additive (10, 20, 30%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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16 pages, 5485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Assessment of Iso-Flux Cooling with Low Reynolds Pulsating Water Flow

by Ferenc Szodrai

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7487; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22197487 - 02 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1187

Abstract

Almost every scale in thermal engineering requires performance optimization to lessen energy demand. The possibility of using pulsating flow for water cooling was investigated both experimentally and numerically. The experiments were conducted below a 60 mL∙min⁻¹ flow rate and frequencies of 3.3, [...] Read more.

Almost every scale in thermal engineering requires performance optimization to lessen energy demand. The possibility of using pulsating flow for water cooling was investigated both experimentally and numerically. The experiments were conducted below a 60 mL∙min⁻¹ flow rate and frequencies of 3.3, 4, 5, 6.6, and 10 Hz. The flow rate and temperatures were monitored while the solenoid valve was actuated and cooled with thermoelectric coolers. The measurements were replicated by using commercially available software capable of doing large-eddy simulations with coupled thermal modelling. Thermal boundaries were created by using steady inflow temperature and iso-flux conditions. The experimental and numerical results were compared and evaluated. The results show that the Nusselt number of the examined pulsating flow was lower when compared to constant flow scenarios at the corresponding averaged flow rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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14 pages, 8819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simply Fabricated Inexpensive Dual-Polymer-Coated Fabry-Perot Interferometer-Based Temperature Sensors with High Sensitivity

by Tejaswi Tanaji Salunkhe, Ho Kyung Lee, Hyung Wook Choi, Sang Joon Park and Il Tae Kim

Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7632; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21227632 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1620

Abstract

We designed simply fabricated, highly sensitive, and cost-effective dual-polymer-coated Fabry–Perot interferometer (DFPI)-based temperature sensors by employing thermosensitive polymers and non-thermosensitive polymers, as well as different two successive dip-coating techniques (stepwise dip coating and polymer mixture coating). Seven sensors were fabricated using different polymer [...] Read more.

We designed simply fabricated, highly sensitive, and cost-effective dual-polymer-coated Fabry–Perot interferometer (DFPI)-based temperature sensors by employing thermosensitive polymers and non-thermosensitive polymers, as well as different two successive dip-coating techniques (stepwise dip coating and polymer mixture coating). Seven sensors were fabricated using different polymer combinations for performance optimization. The experiments demonstrated that the stepwise dip-coated dual thermosensitive polymer sensors exhibited the highest sensitivity (2142.5 pm °C⁻¹ for poly(methyl methacrylate)-polycarbonate (PMMA_PC) and 785.5 pm °C⁻¹ for poly(methyl methacrylate)- polystyrene (PMMA_PS)). Conversely, the polymer-mixture-coated sensors yielded low sensitivities (339.5 pm °C⁻¹ for the poly(methyl methacrylate)-polycarbonate mixture (PMMA_PC mixture) and 233.5 pm °C⁻¹ for the poly(methyl methacrylate)-polystyrene mixture (PMMA_PS mixture). Thus, the coating method, polymer selection, and thin air-bubble-free coating are crucial for high-sensitivity DFPI-based sensors. Furthermore, the DFPI-based sensors yielded stable readouts, based on three measurements. Our comprehensive results confirm the effectiveness, reproducibility, stability, fast response, feasibility, and accuracy of temperature measurements using the proposed sensors. The excellent performance and simplicity of our proposed sensors are promising for biomedical, biochemical, and physical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temperature Sensors 2021-2023)

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