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Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors
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Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 July 2022) | Viewed by 55798

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Iren E. Kuznetsova

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Kotelnikov Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics of RAS, 125009 Moscow, Russia
Interests: acoustic waves propagating in piezoelectric materials and structures; development of acoustoelectronic devices (signal processing, hydroacoustical emmiter/receiver) and sensors (biological, chemical and physical); acoustic methods for definition of acoustic and electric characteristics of new materials (nanocomposite polymeric materials, graphen likely materials, etc.); interaction of electric and magnetic fields with piezoactive acoustic waves
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The development of acoustic sensors is a very important scientific and technical issue. Acoustic sensors are widely applied in various technical systems that monitor the environment, provide biological and chemical safety, and are used in robotics, vehicles, signal processing devices, and numerous other applications. The Special Issue of Sensors entitled “Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors” intends to present original research and critical review articles covering recent advances in all aspects of the development, production, testing, and application of acoustic sensors. It will provide an opportunity for researchers to publish their latest achievements related to the design, fabrication, modeling, testing, characterization, and application of selective, small-sized, cost-effective, and high-performance acoustic sensors. Authors are also invited to present advanced research trends in acoustic sensors technology combined with other physical principles (conductometric, optic, calorimetric, etc.).

Papers dealing with one or several of the following aspects will be considered for publication:

  • Operating principles of various types of acoustic sensors;
  • Design and production of various types of acoustic sensors;
  • Characterization of electrophysical properties of acoustic sensors;
  • Application of acoustic sensors in various fields of science and technics;
  • Acoustic sensing platforms—combination of signal processing and sensor functions;
  • Combination of various physical principles (acoustic, optic, conductometric, electronic, etc.) in common sensing platforms;
  • Hybrid acoustic sensors, including wearable and flexible sensors.

The sequel Special Issue “Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors: Part II” has been announced. We look forward to receiving your submission for the new Special Issue.
https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/journal/sensors/special_issues/BUOXD55QKS
Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 March 2023.

Prof. Dr. Iren E. Kuznetsova
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • acoustic sensors
  • hybrid sensors
  • wearable and flexible sensors
  • signal processing
  • characterization of sensors
  • acoustic sensing platforms

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Published Papers (21 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 8508 KiB  
Article
Development of a Dual-Layer Structure for Cymbal Transducer Arrays to Achieve a Wider Bandwidth
by Jahnavi Mudiyala, Hayeong Shim, Donghyun Kim and Yongrae Roh
Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6614; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22176614 - 01 Sep 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1523
Abstract
Cymbal transducers are typically grouped and arranged in planar arrays. For projector arrays, a wide bandwidth on the transmitting voltage response (TVR) spectrum is required for better underwater communication and data transmission within a short time. The purpose of this study is to [...] Read more.
Cymbal transducers are typically grouped and arranged in planar arrays. For projector arrays, a wide bandwidth on the transmitting voltage response (TVR) spectrum is required for better underwater communication and data transmission within a short time. The purpose of this study is to develop a wideband cymbal array by controlling the center-to-center (CTC) spacing between the cymbal transducers in the array. In the practical design of the array, due to the arrangement of elements in one layer, the minimum CTC spacing between the cymbals is constrained to the diameter of the cymbals in use. To overcome this limitation, we propose a new dual-layer array structure. Finite element analysis of the cymbal array showed that the bandwidth was generally inversely proportional to the CTC spacing. We explained the mechanism of this relationship using a theoretical analysis of the mutual radiation impedance between the cymbals in the array. Subsequently, we identified the optimum CTC spacing to achieve the widest possible bandwidth for the cymbal array. The validity of the wideband array design was verified through the fabrication and characterization of prototype arrays. We confirmed that the two-layered arrangement could significantly widen the bandwidth of the cymbal array while maintaining the TVR above a specified level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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26 pages, 3925 KiB  
Article
Frequency, Time, Representation and Modeling Aspects for Major Speech and Audio Processing Applications
by Juraj Kacur, Boris Puterka, Jarmila Pavlovicova and Milos Oravec
Sensors 2022, 22(16), 6304; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22166304 - 22 Aug 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2175
Abstract
There are many speech and audio processing applications and their number is growing. They may cover a wide range of tasks, each having different requirements on the processed speech or audio signals and, therefore, indirectly, on the audio sensors as well. This article [...] Read more.
There are many speech and audio processing applications and their number is growing. They may cover a wide range of tasks, each having different requirements on the processed speech or audio signals and, therefore, indirectly, on the audio sensors as well. This article reports on tests and evaluation of the effect of basic physical properties of speech and audio signals on the recognition accuracy of major speech/audio processing applications, i.e., speech recognition, speaker recognition, speech emotion recognition, and audio event recognition. A particular focus is on frequency ranges, time intervals, a precision of representation (quantization), and complexities of models suitable for each class of applications. Using domain-specific datasets, eligible feature extraction methods and complex neural network models, it was possible to test and evaluate the effect of basic speech and audio signal properties on the achieved accuracies for each group of applications. The tests confirmed that the basic parameters do affect the overall performance and, moreover, this effect is domain-dependent. Therefore, accurate knowledge of the extent of these effects can be valuable for system designers when selecting appropriate hardware, sensors, architecture, and software for a particular application, especially in the case of limited resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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18 pages, 6088 KiB  
Article
Railway Line Occupancy Control Based on Distance Determination Sound Method
by Rafał Burdzik, Ireneusz Celiński and Maciej Kłaczyński
Sensors 2022, 22(13), 5003; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22135003 - 02 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1378
Abstract
The purpose of this research paper is to present the application of the developed sound method as a supporting tool to deal with railway traffic flow control. It is found that controlling railway line occupancy is the main issue associated with railway traffic [...] Read more.
The purpose of this research paper is to present the application of the developed sound method as a supporting tool to deal with railway traffic flow control. It is found that controlling railway line occupancy is the main issue associated with railway traffic flow. For this purpose, the line occupancy control based on a sound method has been developed. The concept of using sound waves as a source of information about approaching people, animals, vehicles, etc., has been known for centuries, and is due to the natural properties of the sense of hearing. There are many engineering attempts on the use of this phenomenon, which are mostly based on applications of distributed fiber-optic sensing technology. This paper presents the results of the sound pressure measurement in the immediate proximity of the rail to analyze and evaluate the use of the acoustic wave as an information carrier on approaching rail vehicles. The purpose of this research is to discuss the sound method introduced here, and apply it in different circumstances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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17 pages, 9405 KiB  
Article
An Efficient Compression Method of Underwater Acoustic Sensor Signals for Underwater Surveillance
by Yong Guk Kim, Dong Gwan Kim, Kyucheol Kim, Chang-Ho Choi, Nam In Park and Hong Kook Kim
Sensors 2022, 22(9), 3415; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22093415 - 29 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2114
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a new compression method using underwater acoustic sensor signals for underwater surveillance. Generally, sonar applications that are used for surveillance or ocean monitoring are composed of many underwater acoustic sensors to detect significant sources of sound. It is [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose a new compression method using underwater acoustic sensor signals for underwater surveillance. Generally, sonar applications that are used for surveillance or ocean monitoring are composed of many underwater acoustic sensors to detect significant sources of sound. It is necessary to apply compression methods to the acquired sensor signals due to data processing and storage resource limitations. In addition, depending on the purposes of the operation and the characteristics of the operating environment, it may also be necessary to apply compression methods of low complexity. Accordingly, in this research, a low-complexity and nearly lossless compression method for underwater acoustic sensor signals is proposed. In the design of the proposed method, we adopt the concepts of quadrature mirror filter (QMF)-based sub-band splitting and linear predictive coding, and we attempt to analyze an entropy coding technique suitable for underwater sensor signals. The experiments show that the proposed method achieves better performance in terms of compression ratio and processing time than popular or standardized lossless compression techniques. It is also shown that the compression ratio of the proposed method is almost the same as that of SHORTEN with a 10-bit maximum mode, and both methods achieve a similar peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and structural similarity (SSIM) index on average. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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10 pages, 1925 KiB  
Article
Selective Detection of Liquid Viscosity Using Acoustic Plate Waves with In-Plane Polarization
by Vladimir Anisimkin, Elizaveta Shamsutdinova, Peng Li, Bin Wang, Feng Zhu, Zhenghua Qian and Iren Kuznetsova
Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2727; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22072727 - 01 Apr 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1792
Abstract
Using plates of weak piezoeletcric crystal (quartz) loaded with various liquids, it is shown that along with common modes, whose sensitivity towards different liquid parameters comparable with each other, there are some uncommon modes, whose amplitude responses towards viscosity η are much larger [...] Read more.
Using plates of weak piezoeletcric crystal (quartz) loaded with various liquids, it is shown that along with common modes, whose sensitivity towards different liquid parameters comparable with each other, there are some uncommon modes, whose amplitude responses towards viscosity η are much larger than towards temperature T and electric conductivity σ. The search of the modes with the selective properties is accomplished by varying plate thickness h, crystal orientation, wave length λ, and mode order n. It is found that all modes possessing the property are characterized by small surface-normal displacement, avoiding wave radiation into adjacent liquid, large in-plane displacements, enhancing viscous coupling the modes and liquids, and small electro-mechanical constant, reducing electro-acoustic interaction. Basing on the modes, the sensor prototypes with selective operation are developed and tested for η from 1 to 1500 cP, σ from 0 to 1.2 S/m, and t from 0 to 55 °C. Because of operation at ultrasonic frequency (tens MHz) the prototypes have different sensitivities in various η-ranges: 0.3 dB/cP for 1–20 cP, 0.12 dB/cP for 20–100 cP, and 0.015 dB/cP for 100–1500 cP. Viscosity responses of the prototypes become comparable with their electric outputs only for η < 2 cP. Temperature responses are almost zero in air, but when plate is coated with liquid they increase depending on liquid properties, allowing measurements of the temperature dependence of the liquid viscosity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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26 pages, 8944 KiB  
Article
Traffic Flow Detection Using Camera Images and Machine Learning Methods in ITS for Noise Map and Action Plan Optimization
by Luca Fredianelli, Stefano Carpita, Marco Bernardini, Lara Ginevra Del Pizzo, Fabio Brocchi, Francesco Bianco and Gaetano Licitra
Sensors 2022, 22(5), 1929; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22051929 - 01 Mar 2022
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5859
Abstract
Noise maps and action plans represent the main tools in the fight against citizens’ exposure to noise, especially that produced by road traffic. The present and the future in smart traffic control is represented by Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), which however have not [...] Read more.
Noise maps and action plans represent the main tools in the fight against citizens’ exposure to noise, especially that produced by road traffic. The present and the future in smart traffic control is represented by Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), which however have not yet been sufficiently studied as possible noise-mitigation tools. However, ITS dedicated to traffic control rely on models and input data that are like those required for road traffic noise mapping. The present work developed an instrumentation based on low-cost cameras and a vehicle recognition and counting methodology using modern machine learning techniques, compliant with the requirements of the CNOSSOS-EU noise assessment model. The instrumentation and methodology could be integrated with existing ITS for traffic control in order to design an integrated method, which could also provide updated data over time for noise maps and action plans. The test was carried out as a follow up of the L.I.S.T. Port project, where an ITS was installed for road traffic management in the Italian port city of Piombino. The acoustic efficacy of the installation is evaluated by looking at the difference in the acoustic impact on the population before and after the ITS installation by means of the distribution of noise exposure, the evaluation of Gden and Gnight, and the calculation of the number of highly annoyed and sleep-disturbed citizens. Finally, it is shown how the ITS system represents a valid solution to be integrated with targeted and more specific sound mitigation, such as the laying of low-emission asphalts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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13 pages, 4129 KiB  
Article
Sensor Size Effect on Rayleigh Wave Velocity on Cementitious Surfaces
by Nicolas Ospitia, Dimitrios G. Aggelis and Gerlinde Lefever
Sensors 2021, 21(19), 6483; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21196483 - 28 Sep 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1898
Abstract
Concrete properties and damage conditions are widely evaluated by ultrasonics. When access is limited, the evaluation takes place from a single surface. In this case, the sensor size plays a crucial role due to the “aperture effect”. While this effect is well documented [...] Read more.
Concrete properties and damage conditions are widely evaluated by ultrasonics. When access is limited, the evaluation takes place from a single surface. In this case, the sensor size plays a crucial role due to the “aperture effect”. While this effect is well documented regarding the amplitude or the frequency content of the surface (or Rayleigh) wave pulses, it has not been studied in terms of the wave velocity, although the velocity value is connected to concrete stiffness, porosity, damage degree, and is even empirically used to evaluate compressive strength. In this study, numerical simulations take place where sensors of different sizes are used to measure the surface wave velocity as well as its dependence on frequency (dispersion) and sensor size, showing the strong aperture effect and suggesting rules for reliable measurements on a concrete surface. The numerical trends are also validated by experimental measurements on a cementitious material by sensors of different sizes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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13 pages, 3751 KiB  
Communication
On the Design of Soret Zone Plates Based on Binary Sequences Using Directional Transducers
by Pilar Candelas, Sergio Pérez-López and José Miguel Fuster
Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6086; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21186086 - 10 Sep 2021
Viewed by 1414
Abstract
In this work, we analyze the effect of the distribution of transparent Fresnel regions over the focusing profile of Soret Zone Plates (SZP) based on binary sequences. It is shown that this effect becomes very significant in those fields where directional transducers are [...] Read more.
In this work, we analyze the effect of the distribution of transparent Fresnel regions over the focusing profile of Soret Zone Plates (SZP) based on binary sequences. It is shown that this effect becomes very significant in those fields where directional transducers are employed, such as microwaves or acoustics. A thorough analysis of both the SZP transmission efficiency and the focusing enhancement factor is presented. Moreover, experimental measurements are also carried out for a particular type of binary sequence, the Cantor ternary set, validating the theoretical model and demonstrating that the distribution of transparent Fresnel regions becomes a critical parameter in applications requiring directional emitters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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20 pages, 3969 KiB  
Article
Periodic Tubular Structures and Phononic Crystals towards High-Q Liquid Ultrasonic Inline Sensors for Pipes
by Nikolay Mukhin and Ralf Lucklum
Sensors 2021, 21(17), 5982; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21175982 - 06 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2692
Abstract
The article focuses on a high-resolution ultrasound sensor for real-time monitoring of liquid analytes in cylindrical pipes, tubes, or capillaries. The development of such a sensor faces the challenges of acoustic energy losses, including dissipation at liquid/solid interface and acoustic wave radiation along [...] Read more.
The article focuses on a high-resolution ultrasound sensor for real-time monitoring of liquid analytes in cylindrical pipes, tubes, or capillaries. The development of such a sensor faces the challenges of acoustic energy losses, including dissipation at liquid/solid interface and acoustic wave radiation along the pipe. Furthermore, we consider acoustic resonant mode coupling and mode conversion. We show how the concept of phononic crystals can be applied to solve these problems and achieve the maximum theoretically possible Q-factor for resonant ultrasonic sensors. We propose an approach for excitation and measurement of an isolated radial resonant mode with minimal internal losses. The acoustic energy is effectively localized in a narrow probing area due to the introduction of periodically arranged sectioned rings around the tube. We present a sensor design concept, which optimizes the coupling between the tubular resonator and external piezoelectric transducers. We introduce a 2D-phononic crystal in the probing region for this purpose. The Q-factor of the proposed structures show the high prospects for phononic crystal pipe sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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12 pages, 4720 KiB  
Article
Langasite as Piezoelectric Substrate for Sensors in Harsh Environments: Investigation of Surface Degradation under High-Temperature Air Atmosphere
by Thierry Aubert, Ninel Kokanyan and Omar Elmazria
Sensors 2021, 21(17), 5978; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21175978 - 06 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2374
Abstract
Langasite crystals (LGS) are known for their exceptional piezoelectric properties at high temperatures up to 1000 °C and more. In this respect, many studies have been conducted in order to achieve surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors based on LGS crystals dedicated to high-temperature [...] Read more.
Langasite crystals (LGS) are known for their exceptional piezoelectric properties at high temperatures up to 1000 °C and more. In this respect, many studies have been conducted in order to achieve surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors based on LGS crystals dedicated to high-temperature operations. Operating temperatures of more than 1000 °C and 600 °C for wired and wireless sensors, respectively, have been reached. These outstanding performances have been obtained under an air atmosphere since LGS crystals are not stable in high-temperature conditions under a low-oxygen atmosphere due to their oxide nature. However, if the stability of bulk LGS crystals under a high-temperature air atmosphere is well established, the surface deterioration under such conditions has been hardly investigated, as most of the papers dedicated to LGS-based SAW sensors are essentially focused on the development of thin film electrodes that are able to withstand very elevated temperatures to be combined with LGS crystals. Yet, any surface modification of the substrate can dramatically change the performance of SAW sensors. Consequently, the aim of this paper is to study the stability of the LGS surface under a high-temperature air environment. To do so, LGS substrates have been annealed in an air atmosphere at temperatures between 800 and 1200 °C and for durations between one week and one month. The morphology, microstructure, and chemical composition of the LGS surface was examined before and after annealing treatments by numerous and complementary methods, while the surface acoustic properties have been probed by SAW measurements. These investigations reveal that depending on both the temperature and the annealing duration, many defects with a corolla-like shape appear at the surface of LGS crystals in high-temperature prolonged exposure in an air atmosphere. These defects are related to the formation of a new phase, likely an oxiapatite ternary compound, the chemical formula of which is La14GaxSi9−xO39−x/2. These defects are located on the surface and penetrate into the depth of the sample by no more than 1–2 microns. However, SAW measurements show that the surface acoustic properties are modified by the high-temperature exposure at a larger deepness of at least several tens of microns. These perturbations of the LGS surface acoustic properties could induce, in the case of LGS-based SAW sensors operating in the 434 MHz ISM band, temperature measurement errors around 10 °C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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14 pages, 10910 KiB  
Article
The Effects of the Structural and Acoustic Parameters of the Skull Model on Transcranial Focused Ultrasound
by Hao Zhang, Yanqiu Zhang, Minpeng Xu, Xizi Song, Shanguang Chen, Xiqi Jian and Dong Ming
Sensors 2021, 21(17), 5962; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21175962 - 05 Sep 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4481
Abstract
Transcranial focused ultrasound (tFUS) has great potential in brain imaging and therapy. However, the structural and acoustic differences of the skull will cause a large number of technical problems in the application of tFUS, such as low focus energy, focal shift, and defocusing. [...] Read more.
Transcranial focused ultrasound (tFUS) has great potential in brain imaging and therapy. However, the structural and acoustic differences of the skull will cause a large number of technical problems in the application of tFUS, such as low focus energy, focal shift, and defocusing. To have a comprehensive understanding of the skull effect on tFUS, this study investigated the effects of the structural parameters (thickness, radius of curvature, and distance from the transducer) and acoustic parameters (density, acoustic speed, and absorption coefficient) of the skull model on tFUS based on acrylic plates and two simulation methods (self-programming and COMSOL). For structural parameters, our research shows that as the three factors increase the unit distance, the attenuation caused from large to small is the thickness (0.357 dB/mm), the distance to transducer (0.048 dB/mm), and the radius of curvature (0.027 dB/mm). For acoustic parameters, the attenuation caused by density (0.024 dB/30 kg/m3) and acoustic speed (0.021 dB/30 m/s) are basically the same. Additionally, as the absorption coefficient increases, the focus acoustic pressure decays exponentially. The thickness of the structural parameters and the absorption coefficient of the acoustic parameters are the most important factors leading to the attenuation of tFUS. The experimental and simulation trends are highly consistent. This work contributes to the comprehensive and quantitative understanding of how the skull influences tFUS, which further enhances the application of tFUS in neuromodulation research and treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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14 pages, 3262 KiB  
Article
Polymer–Plasticizer Coatings for BTEX Detection Using Quartz Crystal Microbalance
by Abhijeet Iyer, Veselinka Mitevska, Jonathan Samuelson, Scott Campbell and Venkat R. Bhethanabotla
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5667; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21165667 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2478
Abstract
Sensing films based on polymer–plasticizer coatings have been developed to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere at low concentrations (ppm) using quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs). Of particular interest in this work are the VOCs benzene, ethylbenzene, and toluene which, along with [...] Read more.
Sensing films based on polymer–plasticizer coatings have been developed to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere at low concentrations (ppm) using quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs). Of particular interest in this work are the VOCs benzene, ethylbenzene, and toluene which, along with xylene, are collectively referred to as BTEX. The combinations of four glassy polymers with five plasticizers were studied as prospective sensor films for this application, with PEMA-DINCH (5%) and PEMA-DIOA (5%) demonstrating optimal performance. This work shows how the sensitivity and selectivity of a glassy polymer film for BTEX detection can be altered by adding a precise amount and type of plasticizer. To quantify the film saturation dynamics and model the absorption of BTEX analyte molecules into the bulk of the sensing film, a diffusion study was performed in which the frequency–time curve obtained via QCM was correlated with gas-phase analyte composition and the infinite dilution partition coefficients of each constituent. The model was able to quantify the respective concentrations of each analyte from binary and ternary mixtures based on the difference in response time (τ) values using a single polymer–plasticizer film as opposed to the traditional approach of using a sensor array. This work presents a set of polymer–plasticizer coatings that can be used for detecting and quantifying the BTEX in air, and discusses the selection of an optimum film based on τ, infinite dilution partition coefficients, and stability over a period of time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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18 pages, 4967 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Average Speed of Road Vehicles by Sound Intensity Analysis
by Józef Kotus and Grzegorz Szwoch
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5337; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21165337 - 07 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2864
Abstract
Constant monitoring of road traffic is important part of modern smart city systems. The proposed method estimates average speed of road vehicles in the observation period, using a passive acoustic vector sensor. Speed estimation based on sound intensity analysis is a novel approach [...] Read more.
Constant monitoring of road traffic is important part of modern smart city systems. The proposed method estimates average speed of road vehicles in the observation period, using a passive acoustic vector sensor. Speed estimation based on sound intensity analysis is a novel approach to the described problem. Sound intensity in two orthogonal axes is measured with a sensor placed alongside the road. Position of the apparent sound source when a vehicle passes by the sensor is estimated by means of sound intensity analysis in three frequency bands: 1 kHz, 2 kHz and 4 kHz. The position signals calculated for each vehicle are averaged in the analysis time frames, and the average speed estimate is calculated using a linear regression. The proposed method was validated in two experiments, one with controlled vehicle speed and another with real, unrestricted traffic. The calculated speed estimates were compared with the reference lidar and radar sensors. Average estimation error from all experiment was 1.4% and the maximum error was 3.2%. The results confirm that the proposed method allow for estimation of time-averaged road traffic speed with accuracy sufficient for gathering traffic statistics, e.g., in a smart city monitoring station. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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20 pages, 7509 KiB  
Article
Ultrasonic Propagation in Liquid and Ice Water Drops. Effect of Porosity
by Michiel Mendonck, Sofía Aparicio, Cristóbal González Díaz, Margarita G. Hernández, Guillermo M. Muñoz Caro, José Javier Anaya and Stéphanie Cazaux
Sensors 2021, 21(14), 4790; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21144790 - 13 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2239
Abstract
This work studies ultrasonic propagation in liquid and ice water drops. The effect of porosity on attenuation of ultrasonic waves in the drops is also explored. The motivation of this research was the possible application of ultrasonic techniques to the study of interstellar [...] Read more.
This work studies ultrasonic propagation in liquid and ice water drops. The effect of porosity on attenuation of ultrasonic waves in the drops is also explored. The motivation of this research was the possible application of ultrasonic techniques to the study of interstellar and cometary ice analogs. These ice analogs, made by vapor deposition onto a cold substrate at 10 K, can display high porosity values up to 40%. We found that the ultrasonic pulse was fully attenuated in such ice, and decided to grow ice samples by freezing a liquid drop. Several experiments were performed using liquid or frozen water drops with and without pores. An ultrasonic pulse was transmitted through each drop and measured. This method served to estimate the ultrasonic velocity of each drop by measuring drop size and time-of-flight of ultrasonic transmission. Propagation of ultrasonic waves in these drops was also simulated numerically using the SimNDT program developed by the authors. After that, the ultrasonic velocity was related with the porosity using a micromechanical model. It was found that a low value of porosity in the ice is sufficient to attenuate the ultrasonic propagation. This explains the observed lack of transmission in porous astrophysical ice analogs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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10 pages, 4436 KiB  
Communication
The Peculiarities of the Acoustic Waves of Zero-Order Focusing in Lithium Niobate Plate
by Iren Kuznetsova, Ilya Nedospasov, Andrey Smirnov, Vladimir Anisimkin, Dmitry Roshchupkin, Maria-Assunta Signore, Luca Francioso, Jun Kondoh, Mikhail Serebrov, Vadim Kashin and Vladimir Kolesov
Sensors 2021, 21(12), 4000; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21124000 - 10 Jun 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2768
Abstract
In this research, beam focusing in lithium niobate plate was studied for fundamental anti-symmetric (A0) and symmetric (S0) Lamb waves, and the shear-horizontal (SH0) wave of zero-order. Using the finite element method, appropriate configuration of the interdigital [...] Read more.
In this research, beam focusing in lithium niobate plate was studied for fundamental anti-symmetric (A0) and symmetric (S0) Lamb waves, and the shear-horizontal (SH0) wave of zero-order. Using the finite element method, appropriate configuration of the interdigital transducer with arc-like electrodes was modeled accounting for the anisotropy of the slowness curves and dispersion of the modes in the plate. Profiles of the focalized acoustic beams generated by the proposed transducer were theoretically analyzed. Based on the result of the analysis, relevant delay lines were fabricated and transfer functions (insertion loss) of the line were measured for SH0 wave in YX-lithium niobate plate. Using an electron scanning microscope, distribution of the electric fields of the same wave were visualized. The results of this study may be useful for hybrid devices and sensors combining nano and acoustoelectronic principles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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14 pages, 4563 KiB  
Communication
The Experimental Registration of the Evanescent Acoustic Wave in YX LiNbO3 Plate
by Andrey Smirnov, Boris Zaitsev, Andrey Teplykh, Ilya Nedospasov, Egor Golovanov, Zheng-hua Qian, Bin Wang and Iren Kuznetsova
Sensors 2021, 21(6), 2238; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21062238 - 23 Mar 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2116
Abstract
Evanescent acoustic waves are characterized by purely imaginary or complex wavenumbers. Earlier, in 2019 by using a three dimensional (3D) finite element method (FEM) the possibility of the excitation and registration of such waves in the piezoelectric plates was theoretically shown. In this [...] Read more.
Evanescent acoustic waves are characterized by purely imaginary or complex wavenumbers. Earlier, in 2019 by using a three dimensional (3D) finite element method (FEM) the possibility of the excitation and registration of such waves in the piezoelectric plates was theoretically shown. In this paper the set of the acoustically isolated interdigital transducers (IDTs) with the different spatial periods for excitation and registration of the evanescent acoustic wave in Y-cut X-propagation direction of lithium niobate (LiNbO3) plate was specifically calculated and produced. As a result, the possibility to excite and register the evanescent acoustic wave in the piezoelectric plates was experimentally proved for the first time. The evanescent nature of the registered wave has been established. The theoretical results turned out to be in a good agreement with the experimental ones. The influence of an infinitely thin layer with arbitrary conductivity placed on a plate surface was also investigated. It has been shown that the frequency region of an evanescent acoustic wave existence is very sensitive to the changes of the electrical boundary conditions. The results obtained may be used for the development of the method of the analysis of thin films electric properties based on the study of evanescent waves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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17 pages, 5419 KiB  
Article
Diamond Grinding Wheel Condition Monitoring Based on Acoustic Emission Signals
by Guo Bi, Shan Liu, Shibo Su and Zhongxue Wang
Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1054; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21041054 - 04 Feb 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2657
Abstract
Acoustic emission (AE) phenomenon has a direct relationship with the interaction of tool and material which makes AE the most sensitive one among various process variables. However, its prominent sensitivity also means the characteristics of random and board band. Feature representation is a [...] Read more.
Acoustic emission (AE) phenomenon has a direct relationship with the interaction of tool and material which makes AE the most sensitive one among various process variables. However, its prominent sensitivity also means the characteristics of random and board band. Feature representation is a difficult problem for AE-based monitoring and determines the accuracy of monitoring system. It is knottier for the situation of using diamond wheel grinding optical components, not only because of the complexity of grinding process but also the high requirement on surface and subsurface quality. This paper is dedicated to AE-based condition monitoring of diamond wheel during grinding brittle materials and feature representation is paid more attention. AE signal of brittle-regime grinding is modeled as a superposition of a series of burst-type AE events. Theory analysis manifested that original time waveform and frequency spectrum are all suitable for feature representation. Considering the convolution form of b-AE in time domain, a convolutional neural network with original time waveform of AE signals as the input is built for multi-class classification of wheel state. Detailed state division in a wheel’s whole life cycle is realized and the accuracy is over 90%. Different from the overlapping in time domain, AE components of different crack mechanisms are probably separated in frequency domain. From this point of view, AE spectrums are more suitable for feature extraction than the original time waveform. In addition, the time sequence of AE samples is essential for the evaluation of wheel’s life elapse and making use of sequential information is just the idea behind recurrent neural network (RNN). Therefore, long short-term memory (LSTM), a special kind of RNN, is used to build a regression prediction model of wheel state with AE spectrums as the model input and satisfactory prediction accuracy is acquired on the test set. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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12 pages, 3127 KiB  
Communication
Simultaneous Acquisition of Ultrasound and Gamma Signals with a Single-Channel Readout
by Muhammad Nasir Ullah, Yuseung Park, Gyeong Beom Kim, Chanho Kim, Chansun Park, Hojong Choi and Jung-Yeol Yeom
Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1048; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21041048 - 04 Feb 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3202
Abstract
We propose an integrated front-end data acquisition circuit for a hybrid ultrasound (US)-gamma probe. The proposed circuit consists of three main parts: (1) a preamplifier for the gamma probe, (2) a preprocessing analog circuit for the US, and (3) a digitally controlled analog [...] Read more.
We propose an integrated front-end data acquisition circuit for a hybrid ultrasound (US)-gamma probe. The proposed circuit consists of three main parts: (1) a preamplifier for the gamma probe, (2) a preprocessing analog circuit for the US, and (3) a digitally controlled analog switch. By exploiting the long idle time of the US system, an analog switch can be used to acquire data of both systems using a single output channel simultaneously. On the nuclear medicine (NM) gamma probe side, energy resolutions of 18.4% and 17.5% were acquired with the standalone system and with the proposed switching circuit, respectively, when irradiated with a Co-57 radiation source. Similarly, signal-to-noise ratios of 14.89 and 13.12 dB were achieved when US echo signals were acquired with the standalone system and with the proposed switching circuit, respectively. Lastly, a combined US-gamma probe was used to scan a glass target and a sealed radiation source placed in a water tank. The results confirmed that, by using a hybrid US-gamma probe system, it is possible to distinguish between the two objects and acquire structural information (ultrasound) alongside molecular information (gamma radiation source). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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12 pages, 5593 KiB  
Communication
An Analysis of the Water-to-Ice Phase Transition Using Acoustic Plate Waves
by Vladimir Anisimkin, Vladimir Kolesov, Anastasia Kuznetsova, Elizaveta Shamsutdinova and Iren Kuznetsova
Sensors 2021, 21(3), 919; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21030919 - 29 Jan 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1926
Abstract
It is shown that, in spite of the wave radiation into the adjacent liquid, a large group of Lamb waves are able to propagate along piezoelectric plates (quartz, LiNbO3, LiTaO3) coated with a liquid layer (distilled water H2 [...] Read more.
It is shown that, in spite of the wave radiation into the adjacent liquid, a large group of Lamb waves are able to propagate along piezoelectric plates (quartz, LiNbO3, LiTaO3) coated with a liquid layer (distilled water H2O). When the layer freezes, most of the group’s waves increase their losses, essentially forming an acoustic response towards water-to-ice transformation. Partial contributions to the responses originating from wave propagation, electro-mechanical transduction, and wave scattering were estimated and compared with the coupling constants, and the vertical displacements of the waves were calculated numerically at the water–plate and ice–plate interfaces. The maximum values of the responses (20–30 dB at 10–100 MHz) are attributed to the total water-to-ice transformation. Time variations in the responses at intermediate temperatures were interpreted in terms of a two-phase system containing both water and ice simultaneously. The results of the paper may turn out to be useful for some applications where the control of ice formation is an important problem (aircraft wings, ship bodies, car roads, etc.). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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24 pages, 5724 KiB  
Article
Single-Channel Multiple-Receiver Sound Source Localization System with Homomorphic Deconvolution and Linear Regression
by Yeonseok Park, Anthony Choi and Keonwook Kim
Sensors 2021, 21(3), 760; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21030760 - 23 Jan 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2192
Abstract
The conventional sound source localization systems require the significant complexity because of multiple synchronized analog-to-digital conversion channels as well as the scalable algorithms. This paper proposes a single-channel sound localization system for transport with multiple receivers. The individual receivers are connected by the [...] Read more.
The conventional sound source localization systems require the significant complexity because of multiple synchronized analog-to-digital conversion channels as well as the scalable algorithms. This paper proposes a single-channel sound localization system for transport with multiple receivers. The individual receivers are connected by the single analog microphone network which provides the superimposed signal over simple connectivity based on asynchronized analog circuit. The proposed system consists of two computational stages as homomorphic deconvolution and machine learning stage. A previous study has verified the performance of time-of-flight estimation by utilizing the non-parametric and parametric homomorphic deconvolution algorithms. This paper employs the linear regression with supervised learning for angle-of-arrival prediction. Among the circular configurations of receiver positions, the optimal location is selected for three-receiver structure based on the extensive simulations. The non-parametric method presents the consistent performance and Yule–Walker parametric algorithm indicates the least accuracy. The Steiglitz–McBride parametric algorithm delivers the best predictions with reduced model order as well as other parameter values. The experiments in the anechoic chamber demonstrate the accurate predictions in proper ensemble length and model order. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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15 pages, 5037 KiB  
Article
Experimental Research on Rapid Localization of Acoustic Source in a Cylindrical Shell Structure without Knowledge of the Velocity Profile
by Jia Fu, Shenxin Yin, Zhiwen Cui and Tribikram Kundu
Sensors 2021, 21(2), 511; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21020511 - 13 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1923
Abstract
Acoustic source localization in a large pressure vessel or a storage tank-type cylindrical structure is important in preventing structural failure. However, this can be challenging, especially for cylindrical pressure vessels and tanks that are made of anisotropic materials. The large area of the [...] Read more.
Acoustic source localization in a large pressure vessel or a storage tank-type cylindrical structure is important in preventing structural failure. However, this can be challenging, especially for cylindrical pressure vessels and tanks that are made of anisotropic materials. The large area of the cylindrical structure often requires a substantial number of sensors to locate the acoustic source. This paper first applies conventional acoustic source localization techniques developed for the isotropic, flat plate-type structures to cylindrical structures. The experimental results show that the conventional acoustic source localization technique is not very accurate for source localization on cylindrical container surfaces. Then, the L-shaped sensor cluster technique is applied to the cylindrical surface of the pressure vessel, and the experimental results prove the applicability of using this technique. Finally, the arbitrary triangle-shaped sensor clusters are attached to the surface of the cylindrical structure to locate the acoustic source. The experimental results show that the two acoustic source localization techniques using sensor clusters can be used to monitor the location of acoustic sources on the surface of anisotropic cylindrical vessels, using a small number of sensors. The arbitrarily triangle-shaped sensors can be arbitrarily placed in a cluster on the surface of the cylindrical vessel. The results presented in this paper provide a theoretical and experimental basis for the surface acoustic source localization method for a cylindrical pressure vessel and lay a theoretical foundation for its application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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