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Toxins: 15th Anniversary
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Toxins: 15th Anniversary

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2024 | Viewed by 21577

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Jay Fox

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Guest Editor
Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Interests: snake venom metalloproteinases; SVMPs; ADAMs; disintegrins; pathophysiology/histology; hemorrhagic toxins; coagulopathy; disintegrin-like/cysteine-rich domains
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Sarah De Saeger

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Bioanalysis, Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
2. Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Interests: mycotoxins
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Michel R. Popoff

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Unité “Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines”, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, F-75015 Paris, France
Interests: bacterial protein toxins; clostridial toxins; pore-forming toxins; cellular uptake of bacterial toxins; Rho-GTPases; interactions of clostridial toxins with the actin cytoskeleton; botulinum neurotoxins; passage of the neurotoxins through the epithelial barrier; regulation of clostridial toxin synthesis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Raymond Vanholder

grade E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Nephrology Section, 0K12, Department of Internal Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: uremia; chronic kidney disease; hemodialysis; adequacy of dialysis; acute kidney injury
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Griet Glorieux

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Ghent University Hospital, Ghent University, 9000 Gent, Belgium
Interests: uremic toxins; protein-bound uremic toxins; chronic kidney disease; leukocyte/monocyte function; leukocyte–endothelial interaction; inflammation in CKD; dialysis fluid purity/endotoxins; gut–kidney axis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Mark W. Sumarah

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, ON, Canada
Interests: mycotoxins
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The year 2023 marks the 15th anniversary of the launch of Toxins, a peer-reviewed, open access journal containing research relevant to the field of toxins. Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651) is devoted to all aspects of research on toxinology and all kinds of toxins (biotoxins) from animals, microbes, and plants. Toxins was accepted for coverage in the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) in 2012 and received its first IF of 2.129 in 2013. It obtained a 2022 IF of 5.075, ranking 20th out of 94 (Q1) titles in the Toxicology' category, and 40th out of 143 (Q2) titles in ‘Food Science & Technology’ category.

To date, Toxins has already published more than 5700 papers from more than 3800 authors. More than 6800 reviewers have submitted at least one review report. We would like to sincerely thank our readers, innumerable authors, anonymous peer reviewers, editors, any individuals who work for the journal and all those who have contributed time and effort throughout the years for their interest and commitment.

To celebrate the significant milestone of this 15th Anniversary, a Special Issue entitled “Toxins: 15th Anniversary” has been launched. This Special Issue will include high-quality papers on topics within the broad scope of Toxins. It is our pleasure to invite you to contribute an original research article or a comprehensive review article on a current, trending topic for peer review and possible publication in Toxins.

Prof. Dr. Jay Fox
Prof. Dr. Sarah De Saeger
Dr. Michel R. Popoff
Prof. Dr. R. Vanholder
Prof. Dr. Griet Glorieux
Dr. Mark W. Sumarah
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (16 papers)

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18 pages, 5205 KiB  
Article
Overexpressing the cpr1953 Orphan Histidine Kinase Gene in the Absence of cpr1954 Orphan Histidine Kinase Gene Expression, or Vice Versa, Is Sufficient to Obtain Significant Sporulation and Strong Production of Clostridium perfringens Enterotoxin or Spo0A by Clostridium perfringens Type F Strain SM101
by Iman Mehdizadeh Gohari, Jessica L. Gonzales, Francisco A. Uzal and Bruce A. McClane
Toxins 2024, 16(4), 195; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16040195 - 18 Apr 2024
Viewed by 438
Abstract
The CPR1953 and CPR1954 orphan histidine kinases profoundly affect sporulation initiation and Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) production by C. perfringens type F strain SM101, whether cultured in vitro (modified Duncan–Strong sporulation medium (MDS)) or ex vivo (mouse small intestinal contents (MIC)). To help [...] Read more.
The CPR1953 and CPR1954 orphan histidine kinases profoundly affect sporulation initiation and Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) production by C. perfringens type F strain SM101, whether cultured in vitro (modified Duncan–Strong sporulation medium (MDS)) or ex vivo (mouse small intestinal contents (MIC)). To help distinguish whether CPR1953 and CPR1954 act independently or in a stepwise manner to initiate sporulation and CPE production, cpr1953 and cpr1954 null mutants of SM101 were transformed with plasmids carrying the cpr1954 or cpr1953 genes, respectively, causing overexpression of cpr1954 in the absence of cpr1953 expression and vice versa. RT-PCR confirmed that, compared to SM101, the cpr1953 mutant transformed with a plasmid encoding cpr1954 expressed cpr1954 at higher levels while the cpr1954 mutant transformed with a plasmid encoding cpr1953 expressed higher levels of cpr1953. Both overexpressing strains showed near wild-type levels of sporulation, CPE toxin production, and Spo0A production in MDS or MIC. These findings suggest that CPR1953 and CPR1954 do not function together in a step-wise manner, e.g., as a novel phosphorelay. Instead, it appears that, at natural expression levels, the independent kinase activities of both CPR1953 and CPR1954 are necessary for obtaining sufficient Spo0A production and phosphorylation to initiate sporulation and CPE production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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14 pages, 3891 KiB  
Article
Unveiling the Broad Substrate Specificity of Deoxynivalenol Oxidation Enzyme DepA and Its Role in Detoxifying Trichothecene Mycotoxins
by Yan Zhu, Edicon Tze Shun Chan, Nadine Abraham, Xiu-Zhen Li, Weijun Wang, Lili Mats, Honghui Zhu, Jason Carere and Ting Zhou
Toxins 2024, 16(3), 136; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16030136 - 05 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1068
Abstract
DepA, a pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ)-dependent enzyme isolated from Devosia mutans 17-2-E-8, exhibits versatility in oxidizing deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives. This study explored DepA’s substrate specificity and enzyme kinetics, focusing on DON and 15-acetyl-DON. Besides efficiently oxidizing DON, DepA also transforms 15-acetyl-DON into [...] Read more.
DepA, a pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ)-dependent enzyme isolated from Devosia mutans 17-2-E-8, exhibits versatility in oxidizing deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives. This study explored DepA’s substrate specificity and enzyme kinetics, focusing on DON and 15-acetyl-DON. Besides efficiently oxidizing DON, DepA also transforms 15-acetyl-DON into 15-acetyl-3-keto-DON, as identified via LC-MS/MS and NMR analysis. The kinetic parameters, including the maximum reaction rate, turnover number, and catalytic efficiency, were thoroughly evaluated. DepA-PQQ complex docking was deployed to rationalize the substrate specificity of DepA. This study further delves into the reduced toxicity of the transformation products, as demonstrated via enzyme homology modeling and in silico docking analysis with yeast 80S ribosomes, indicating a potential decrease in toxicity due to lower binding affinity. Utilizing the response surface methodology and central composite rotational design, mathematical models were developed to elucidate the relationship between the enzyme and cofactor concentrations, guiding the future development of detoxification systems for liquid feeds and grain processing. This comprehensive analysis underscores DepA’s potential for use in mycotoxin detoxification, offering insights for future applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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29 pages, 6819 KiB  
Article
Mycoviruses Increase the Attractiveness of Fusarium graminearum for Fungivores and Suppress Production of the Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol
by Simon Schiwek, Matthäus Slonka, Mohammad Alhussein, Dennis Knierim, Paolo Margaria, Hanna Rose, Katja R. Richert-Pöggeler, Michael Rostás and Petr Karlovsky
Toxins 2024, 16(3), 131; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16030131 - 02 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1207
Abstract
RNA viruses of the genera Ambivirus, Mitovirus, Sclerotimonavirus, and Partitivirus were found in a single isolate of Fusarium graminearum. The genomes of the mitovirus, sclerotimonavirus, and partitivirus were assigned to previously described viruses, whereas the ambivirus genome putatively represents a [...] Read more.
RNA viruses of the genera Ambivirus, Mitovirus, Sclerotimonavirus, and Partitivirus were found in a single isolate of Fusarium graminearum. The genomes of the mitovirus, sclerotimonavirus, and partitivirus were assigned to previously described viruses, whereas the ambivirus genome putatively represents a new species, named Fusarium graminearum ambivirus 1 (FgAV1). To investigate the effect of mycoviruses on the fungal phenotype, the spontaneous loss of mycoviruses during meiosis and the transmission of mycoviruses into a new strain via anastomosis were used to obtain isogenic F. graminearum strains both with and without mycoviruses. Notable effects observed in mycovirus-harboring strains were (i) the suppression of the synthesis of trichothecene mycotoxins and their precursor trichodiene, (ii) the suppression of the synthesis of the defense compound aurofusarin, (iii) the stimulation of the emission of 2-methyl-1-butanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol, and (iv) the increased attractiveness of fungal mycelia for fungivorous collembolans. The increased attractiveness of mycovirus-infected filamentous fungi to animal predators opens new perspectives on the ecological implications of the infection of fungi with viruses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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18 pages, 3147 KiB  
Article
Cyanopeptolins and Anabaenopeptins Are the Dominant Cyanopeptides from Planktothrix Strains Collected in Canadian Lakes
by Catrina D. Earnshaw and David R. McMullin
Toxins 2024, 16(2), 110; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16020110 - 17 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1175
Abstract
Common bloom-forming cyanobacteria produce complex strain-specific mixtures of secondary metabolites. The beneficial and toxic properties of these metabolite mixtures have attracted both research and public health interest. The advancement of mass spectrometry-based platforms and metabolomics data processing has accelerated the identification of new [...] Read more.
Common bloom-forming cyanobacteria produce complex strain-specific mixtures of secondary metabolites. The beneficial and toxic properties of these metabolite mixtures have attracted both research and public health interest. The advancement of mass spectrometry-based platforms and metabolomics data processing has accelerated the identification of new metabolites and feature dereplication from microbial sources. The objective of this study was to use metabolomics data processing to decipher the intracellular cyanopeptide diversity of six Planktothrix strains collected from Canadian lakes. Data-dependent acquisition experiments were used to collect a non-targeted high-resolution mass spectrometry dataset. Principal component analysis and factor loadings were used to visualize cyanopeptide variation between strains and identified features contributing to the observed variation. GNPS molecular networking was subsequently used to show the diversity of cyanopeptides produced by the Planktothrix strains. Each strain produced a unique mixture of cyanopeptides, and a total of 225 cyanopeptides were detected. Planktothrix sp. CPCC 735 produced the most (n = 68) cyanopeptides, and P. rubescens CPCC 732 produced the fewest (n = 27). Microcystins and anabaenopeptins were detected from all strains. Cyanopeptolins, microviridins and aeruginosins were detected from five, four and two strains, respectively. Cyanopeptolin (n = 80) and anabaenopeptin (n = 61) diversity was the greatest, whereas microcystins (n = 21) were the least diverse. Interestingly, three of the P. rubescens strains had different cyanopeptide profiles, despite being collected from the same lake at the same time. This study highlights the diversity of cyanopeptides produced by Planktothrix and further hints at the underestimated cyanopeptide diversity from subpopulations of chemotypic cyanobacteria in freshwater lakes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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28 pages, 5258 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Long-Term Storage on the Epiphytic Microbiome of Postharvest Apples and on Penicillium expansum Occurrence and Patulin Accumulation
by Reem Al Riachy, Caroline Strub, Noël Durand, Vincent Chochois, Félicie Lopez-Lauri, Angélique Fontana and Sabine Schorr-Galindo
Toxins 2024, 16(2), 102; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16020102 - 12 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1206
Abstract
Patulin is a secondary metabolite primarily synthesized by the fungus Penicillium expansum, which is responsible for blue mold disease on apples. The latter are highly susceptible to fungal infection in the postharvest stages. Apples destined to produce compotes are processed throughout the [...] Read more.
Patulin is a secondary metabolite primarily synthesized by the fungus Penicillium expansum, which is responsible for blue mold disease on apples. The latter are highly susceptible to fungal infection in the postharvest stages. Apples destined to produce compotes are processed throughout the year, which implies that long periods of storage are required under controlled atmospheres. P. expansum is capable of infecting apples throughout the whole process, and patulin can be detected in the end-product. In the present study, 455 apples (organically and conventionally grown), destined to produce compotes, of the variety “Golden Delicious” were sampled at multiple postharvest steps. The apple samples were analyzed for their patulin content and P. expansum was quantified using real-time PCR. The patulin results showed no significant differences between the two cultivation techniques; however, two critical control points were identified: the long-term storage and the deck storage of apples at ambient temperature before transport. Additionally, alterations in the epiphytic microbiota of both fungi and bacteria throughout various steps were investigated through the application of a metabarcoding approach. The alpha and beta diversity analysis highlighted the effect of long-term storage, causing an increase in the bacterial and fungal diversity on apples, and showed significant differences in the microbial communities during the different postharvest steps. The different network analyses demonstrated intra-species relationships. Multiple pairs of fungal and bacterial competitive relationships were observed. Positive interactions were also observed between P. expansum and multiple fungal and bacterial species. These network analyses provide a basis for further fungal and bacterial interaction analyses for fruit disease biocontrol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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13 pages, 953 KiB  
Article
Fungal Species and Mycotoxins Associated with Maize Ear Rots Collected from the Eastern Cape in South Africa
by Jenna-Lee Price, Cobus Meyer Visagie, Hannalien Meyer and Neriman Yilmaz
Toxins 2024, 16(2), 95; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16020095 - 08 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1287
Abstract
Maize production in South Africa is concentrated in its central provinces. The Eastern Cape contributes less than 1% of total production, but is steadily increasing its production and has been identified as a priority region for future growth. In this study, we surveyed [...] Read more.
Maize production in South Africa is concentrated in its central provinces. The Eastern Cape contributes less than 1% of total production, but is steadily increasing its production and has been identified as a priority region for future growth. In this study, we surveyed ear rots at maize farms in the Eastern Cape, and mycotoxins were determined to be present in collected samples. Fungal isolations were made from mouldy ears and species identified using morphology and DNA sequences. Cladosporium, Diplodia, Fusarium and Gibberella ear rots were observed during field work, and of these, we collected 78 samples and isolated 83 fungal strains. Fusarium was identified from Fusarium ear rot (FER) and Gibberella ear rot (GER) and Stenocarpella from Diplodia ear rot (DER) samples, respectively. Using LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin analysis, it was revealed that 83% of the collected samples contained mycotoxins, and 17% contained no mycotoxins. Fifty percent of samples contained multiple mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, diplodiatoxin and zearalenone) and 33% contained a single mycotoxin. Fusarium verticillioides was not isolated and fumonisins not detected during this survey. This study revealed that ear rots in the Eastern Cape are caused by a wide range of species that may produce various mycotoxins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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16 pages, 2889 KiB  
Article
The Chaperonin TRiC/CCT Inhibitor HSF1A Protects Cells from Intoxication with Pertussis Toxin
by Jinfang Jia, Manuel Zoeschg, Holger Barth, Arto T. Pulliainen and Katharina Ernst
Toxins 2024, 16(1), 36; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16010036 - 10 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1520
Abstract
Pertussis toxin (PT) is a bacterial AB5-toxin produced by Bordetella pertussis and a major molecular determinant of pertussis, also known as whooping cough, a highly contagious respiratory disease. In this study, we investigate the protective effects of the chaperonin TRiC/CCT inhibitor, [...] Read more.
Pertussis toxin (PT) is a bacterial AB5-toxin produced by Bordetella pertussis and a major molecular determinant of pertussis, also known as whooping cough, a highly contagious respiratory disease. In this study, we investigate the protective effects of the chaperonin TRiC/CCT inhibitor, HSF1A, against PT-induced cell intoxication. TRiC/CCT is a chaperonin complex that facilitates the correct folding of proteins, preventing misfolding and aggregation, and maintaining cellular protein homeostasis. Previous research has demonstrated the significance of TRiC/CCT in the functionality of the Clostridioides difficile TcdB AB-toxin. Our findings reveal that HSF1A effectively reduces the levels of ADP-ribosylated Gαi, the specific substrate of PT, in PT-treated cells, without interfering with enzyme activity in vitro or the cellular binding of PT. Additionally, our study uncovers a novel interaction between PTS1 and the chaperonin complex subunit CCT5, which correlates with reduced PTS1 signaling in cells upon HSF1A treatment. Importantly, HSF1A mitigates the adverse effects of PT on cAMP signaling in cellular systems. These results provide valuable insights into the mechanisms of PT uptake and suggest a promising starting point for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies to counteract pertussis toxin-mediated pathogenicity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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11 pages, 8258 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Susceptibility of Lotus Seeds (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) to Aspergillus flavus Infection and Aflatoxin Contamination
by Abdelrahman Elamin, Sharmin Sultana and Shohei Sakuda
Toxins 2024, 16(1), 29; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16010029 - 07 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1705
Abstract
The seeds of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) have been used as significant medicinal and nutritional ingredients worldwide. The abundant proteins and polysaccharides in lotus seeds make them susceptible to contamination by aflatoxin (AF), a fungal toxic metabolite. This study was conducted to [...] Read more.
The seeds of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) have been used as significant medicinal and nutritional ingredients worldwide. The abundant proteins and polysaccharides in lotus seeds make them susceptible to contamination by aflatoxin (AF), a fungal toxic metabolite. This study was conducted to investigate the susceptibility of lotus seeds at different stages of ripening to AF contamination, as well as the mechanism of the contamination. Seven groups of lotus receptacles with seeds at different ripening stages (A–G, from immature to mature) were used for the experiment. Spores of Aspergillus flavus, an AF producer, were inoculated on the water-gap area of the seeds in each receptacle. Then, each receptacle was covered with a sterilized bag, and its stalk part was soaked in water containing a life-prolonging agent, after which it was kept at room temperature for 14 days. The AF content of each whole inoculated seed from the A–G groups and that of each seed part (pericarp, cotyledon, and embryo) from the D and E groups were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. Microtome sections were prepared from the samples and observed under a light microscope and scanning electron microscope. The seeds from the A and D groups had higher AF contents than the seeds from the B, C, E, F, and G groups, indicating that the condition of the water-gap area and the development of the embryo and cotyledon parts of the seeds are associated with AF contamination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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16 pages, 981 KiB  
Article
Aflatoxin Decontamination in Maize Steep Liquor Obtained from Bioethanol Production Using Laccases from Species within the Basidiomycota Phylum
by Marianela Bossa, María Silvina Alaniz-Zanon, Noelia Edith Monesterolo, María del Pilar Monge, Yamila Milagros Coria, Sofía Noemí Chulze and María Laura Chiotta
Toxins 2024, 16(1), 27; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16010027 - 05 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1295
Abstract
Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important crop in Argentina. Aspergillus section Flavi can infect this crop at the pre-harvest stage, and the harvested grains can be contaminated with aflatoxins (AFs). During the production of bioethanol from maize, AF levels can increase [...] Read more.
Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important crop in Argentina. Aspergillus section Flavi can infect this crop at the pre-harvest stage, and the harvested grains can be contaminated with aflatoxins (AFs). During the production of bioethanol from maize, AF levels can increase up to three times in the final co-products, known as, dry and wet distiller’s grain with solubles (DDGS and WDGS), intended for animal feed. Fungal enzymes like laccases can be a useful tool for reducing AF contamination in the co-products obtained from this process. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the ability of laccase enzymes included in enzymatic extracts (EE) produced by different species in the Basidiomycota phylum to reduce AF (AFB1 and AFB2) accumulation under the conditions of in vitro assays. Four laccase activities (5, 10, 15, and 20 U/mL) exerted by nine isolates were evaluated in the absence and presence of vanillic acid (VA), serving as a laccase redox mediator for the degradation of total AFs. The enzymatic stability in maize steep liquor (MSL) was confirmed after a 60 h incubation period. The most effective EE in terms of reducing AF content in the buffer was selected for an additional assay carried out under the same conditions using maize steep liquor obtained after the saccharification stage during the bioethanol production process. The highest degradation percentages were observed at 20 U/mL of laccase enzymatic activity and 1 mM of VA, corresponding to 26% for AFB1 and 26.6% for AFB2. The present study provides valuable data for the development of an efficient tool based on fungal laccases for preventing AF accumulation in the co-products of bioethanol produced from maize used for animal feed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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9 pages, 3041 KiB  
Communication
Poisoning by Baccharis coridifolia in Early-Weaned Beef Calves: Pathological Study and New Macrocyclic Trichothecene Identification
by Mizael Machado, Rafael Martínez, Sol Andres, Mark W. Sumarah, Justin B. Renaud, Aníbal G. Armién, Claudio S. L. Barros, Franklin Riet-Correa, Alejo Menchaca and Carlos O. Schild
Toxins 2023, 15(12), 681; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins15120681 - 01 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1146
Abstract
This study investigated two outbreaks of spontaneous poisoning by Baccharis coridifolia (Asteraceae) in early-weaned beef calves in Tacuarembó, Uruguay. A total of 34 affected calves showed signs of salivation, anorexia, apathy, marked dehydration, and diarrhea. Deaths occurred 36–72 h after consumption and mortality [...] Read more.
This study investigated two outbreaks of spontaneous poisoning by Baccharis coridifolia (Asteraceae) in early-weaned beef calves in Tacuarembó, Uruguay. A total of 34 affected calves showed signs of salivation, anorexia, apathy, marked dehydration, and diarrhea. Deaths occurred 36–72 h after consumption and mortality varied from 37.5% to 43.3% for outbreak 1 and outbreak 2, respectively. The main pathological findings include diffuse severe necrosis of the prestomachs and lymphoid tissues. Ultrastructurally, epithelial cells of the rumen showed swelling, lysis of the organelles, degradation of intercellular attachments, and degradation of the nuclear chromatin. Using LC-MS with diagnostic fragmentation filtering, 56 macrocyclic trichothecenes including glycosyl and malonyl conjugates were identified. The total concentration of macrocyclic trichothecenes, including conjugates, was estimated to be 1.2 ± 0.1 mg/g plant material. This is the first report of these malonyl–glucose conjugates from Baccharis coridifolia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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13 pages, 2718 KiB  
Article
Phytotoxicity and Phytotoxic Substances in Calamus tenuis Roxb.
by Md. Mahfuzur Rob, Kawsar Hossen, Kaori Ozaki, Toshiaki Teruya and Hisashi Kato-Noguchi
Toxins 2023, 15(10), 595; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins15100595 - 02 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1271
Abstract
Calamus tenuis is a shrub species distributed across South Asia. It grows well in diversified habitats and tends to dominate plants in the surrounding environment. The phytotoxicity of C. tenuis and the action of its phytochemicals against other plant species could explain its [...] Read more.
Calamus tenuis is a shrub species distributed across South Asia. It grows well in diversified habitats and tends to dominate plants in the surrounding environment. The phytotoxicity of C. tenuis and the action of its phytochemicals against other plant species could explain its dominant behavior. Compounds with phytotoxic activity are in high demand as prospective sources of ecofriendly bioherbicides. Therefore, we investigated the phytotoxicity of C. tenuis. Aqueous methanol extracts of this plant species significantly limited the growth of four test plant species, two monocots (barnyard grass and timothy), and two dicots (alfalfa and cress), in a dose- and species-dependent manner. Bio-directed chromatographic isolation of the C. tenuis extracts yielded two major active substances: a novel compound, calamulactone {(S)-methyl 8-(5-oxo-2,5-dihydrofuran-2-yl) octanoate}, and 3-oxo-α-ionone. Both of the identified compounds exerted strong growth inhibitory effects on cress and timothy seedlings. The concentrations of 3-oxo-α-ionone and calamulactone required to limit the growth of the cress seedlings by 50% (I50) were 281.6–199.5 and 141.1–105.5 µM, respectively, indicating that the effect of calamulactone was stronger with lower I50 values. Similarly, the seedlings of timothy also showed a considerably higher sensitivity to calamulactone (I50: 40.5–84.4 µM) than to 3-oxo-α-ionone (I50: 107.8–144.7 µM). The findings indicated that the leaves of C. tenuis have marked growth-inhibitory potential, and could affect surrounding plants to exert dominance over the surrounding plant community. Moreover, the two identified phytotoxic substances might play a key role in the phytotoxicity of C. tenuis, and could be a template for bioherbicide development. This paper was the first to report calamulactone and its phytotoxicity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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23 pages, 5002 KiB  
Article
The Role of Mycotoxins in Interactions between Fusarium graminearum and F. verticillioides Growing in Saprophytic Cultures and Co-Infecting Maize Plants
by Mohammed Sherif, Nadine Kirsch, Richard Splivallo, Katharina Pfohl and Petr Karlovsky
Toxins 2023, 15(9), 575; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins15090575 - 18 Sep 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1396
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum (FG) and Fusarium verticillioides (FV) co-occur in infected plants and plant residues. In maize ears, the growth of FV is stimulated while FG is suppressed. To elucidate the role of mycotoxins in these effects, we used FG [...] Read more.
Fusarium graminearum (FG) and Fusarium verticillioides (FV) co-occur in infected plants and plant residues. In maize ears, the growth of FV is stimulated while FG is suppressed. To elucidate the role of mycotoxins in these effects, we used FG mutants with disrupted synthesis of nivalenol (NIV) and deoxynivalenol (DON) and a FV mutant with disrupted synthesis of fumonisins to monitor fungal growth in mixed cultures in vitro and in co-infected plants by real-time PCR. In autoclaved grains as well as in maize ears, the growth of FV was stimulated by FG regardless of the production of DON or NIV by the latter, whereas the growth of FG was suppressed. In autoclaved grains, fumonisin-producing FV suppressed FG more strongly than a fumonisin-nonproducing strain, indicating that fumonisins act as interference competition agents. In co-infected maize ears, FG suppression was independent of fumonisin production by FV, likely due to heterogeneous infection and a lower level of fumonisins in planta. We conclude that (i) fumonisins are agents of interference competition of FV, and (ii) trichothecenes play no role in the interaction between FG and FV. We hypothesize the following: (i) In vitro, FG stimulates the FV growth by secreting hydrolases that mobilize nutrients. In planta, suppression of plant defense by FG may additionally play a role. (ii) The biological function of fumonisin production in planta is to protect kernels shed on the ground by accumulating protective metabolites before competitors become established. Therefore, to decipher the biological function of mycotoxins, the entire life history of mycotoxin producers must be considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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13 pages, 1814 KiB  
Article
Inbred Selection for Increased Resistance to Kernel Contamination with Fumonisins
by Rogelio Santiago, Antonio J. Ramos, Ana Cao, Rosa Ana Malvar and Ana Butrón
Toxins 2023, 15(7), 444; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins15070444 - 04 Jul 2023
Viewed by 924
Abstract
In temperate world-wide regions, maize kernels are often infected with the fumonisin-producing fungus Fusarium verticillioides which poses food and feed threats to animals and humans. As maize breeding has been revealed as one of the main tools with which to reduce kernel contamination [...] Read more.
In temperate world-wide regions, maize kernels are often infected with the fumonisin-producing fungus Fusarium verticillioides which poses food and feed threats to animals and humans. As maize breeding has been revealed as one of the main tools with which to reduce kernel contamination with fumonisins, a pedigree selection program for increased resistance to Fusarium ear rot (FER), a trait highly correlated with kernel fumonisin content, was initiated in 2014 with the aim of obtaining inbred lines (named EPFUM) with resistance to kernel contamination with fumonisins and adapted to our environmental conditions. The new released EPFUM inbreds, their parental inbreds, hybrids involving crosses of one or two EPFUM inbreds, as well as commercial hybrids were evaluated in the current study. The objectives were (i) to assess if inbreds released by that breeding program were significantly more resistant than their parental inbreds and (ii) to examine if hybrids derived from EPFUM inbreds could be competitive based on grain yield and resistance to FER and fumonisin contamination. Second-cycle inbreds obtained through this pedigree selection program did not significantly improve the levels of resistance to fumonisin contamination of their parental inbreds; however, most EPFUM hybrids showed significantly better resistance to FER and fumonisin contamination than commercial hybrids did. Although European flint materials seem to be the most promising reservoirs of alleles with favorable additive and/or dominance effects for resistance to kernel contamination with fumonisins, marketable new Reid × Lancaster hybrids have been detected as they combine high resistance and yields comparable to those exhibited by commercial hybrids. Moreover, the white kernel hybrid EPFUM-4 × EP116 exploits the genetic variability within the European flint germplasm and can be an alternative to dent hybrid cultivation because white flint grain can lead to higher market prices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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Review

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46 pages, 7856 KiB  
Review
Overview of Bacterial Protein Toxins from Pathogenic Bacteria: Mode of Action and Insights into Evolution
by Michel R. Popoff
Toxins 2024, 16(4), 182; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16040182 - 08 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1088
Abstract
Bacterial protein toxins are secreted by certain bacteria and are responsible for mild to severe diseases in humans and animals. They are among the most potent molecules known, which are active at very low concentrations. Bacterial protein toxins exhibit a wide diversity based [...] Read more.
Bacterial protein toxins are secreted by certain bacteria and are responsible for mild to severe diseases in humans and animals. They are among the most potent molecules known, which are active at very low concentrations. Bacterial protein toxins exhibit a wide diversity based on size, structure, and mode of action. Upon recognition of a cell surface receptor (protein, glycoprotein, and glycolipid), they are active either at the cell surface (signal transduction, membrane damage by pore formation, or hydrolysis of membrane compound(s)) or intracellularly. Various bacterial protein toxins have the ability to enter cells, most often using an endocytosis mechanism, and to deliver the effector domain into the cytosol, where it interacts with an intracellular target(s). According to the nature of the intracellular target(s) and type of modification, various cellular effects are induced (cell death, homeostasis modification, cytoskeleton alteration, blockade of exocytosis, etc.). The various modes of action of bacterial protein toxins are illustrated with representative examples. Insights in toxin evolution are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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22 pages, 4550 KiB  
Review
Mycotoxins-Imprinted Polymers: A State-of-the-Art Review
by Simone Cavalera, Laura Anfossi, Fabio Di Nardo and Claudio Baggiani
Toxins 2024, 16(1), 47; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins16010047 - 15 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1421
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of molds which can contaminate food and beverages. Because of their acute and chronic toxicity, they can have harmful effects when ingested or inhaled, posing severe risks to human health. Contemporary analytical methods have the sensitivity required for contamination [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of molds which can contaminate food and beverages. Because of their acute and chronic toxicity, they can have harmful effects when ingested or inhaled, posing severe risks to human health. Contemporary analytical methods have the sensitivity required for contamination detection and quantification, but the direct application of these methods on real samples is not straightforward because of matrix complexity, and clean-up and preconcentration steps are needed, more and more requiring the application of highly selective solid-phase extraction materials. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are artificial receptors mimicking the natural antibodies that are increasingly being used as a solid phase in extraction methods where selectivity towards target analytes is mandatory. In this review, the state-of-the-art about molecularly imprinted polymers as solid-phase extraction materials in mycotoxin contamination analysis will be discussed, with particular attention paid to the use of mimic molecules in the synthesis of mycotoxin-imprinted materials, to the application of these materials to food real samples, and to the development of advanced extraction methods involving molecular imprinting technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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Graphical abstract

Other

Jump to: Research, Review

18 pages, 2656 KiB  
Systematic Review
The Occurrence of Non-Regulated Mycotoxins in Foods: A Systematic Review
by Octavian Augustin Mihalache, Marthe De Boevre, Luca Dellafiora, Sarah De Saeger, Antonio Moretti, Laetitia Pinson-Gadais, Nadia Ponts, Florence Richard-Forget, Antonia Susca and Chiara Dall’Asta
Toxins 2023, 15(9), 583; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins15090583 - 20 Sep 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2056
Abstract
The aim of this systematic review is to provide an update on the occurrence and co-occurrence of selected non-regulated mycotoxins and provide an overview of current regulations. Fifteen non-regulated mycotoxins were found in 19 food categories worldwide. On top of that, 38 different [...] Read more.
The aim of this systematic review is to provide an update on the occurrence and co-occurrence of selected non-regulated mycotoxins and provide an overview of current regulations. Fifteen non-regulated mycotoxins were found in 19 food categories worldwide. On top of that, 38 different combinations of non-regulated mycotoxins were found, with mixtures varying from binary combinations up to 12 mycotoxins. Taking into consideration the amount of evidence regarding the prevalence and co-occurrence of non-regulated mycotoxins, future steps should be taken considering continuous monitoring, scientific exchange, and generation of high-quality data. To enhance data quality, guidelines outlining the minimum quality criteria for both occurrence data and metadata are needed. By doing so, we can effectively address concerns related to the toxicity of non-regulated mycotoxins. Furthermore, obtaining more data concerning the co-occurrence of both regulated and non-regulated mycotoxins could aid in supporting multiple chemical risk assessment methodologies. Implementing these steps could bolster food safety measures, promote evidence-based regulations, and ultimately safeguard public health from the potential adverse effects of non-regulated mycotoxins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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