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Viruses
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State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America
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State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Human Virology and Viral Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 November 2023) | Viewed by 24343

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Carlos Brites

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, BA, Brazil
Interests: HIV; HTLV; human retroviruses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Antonio Vallinoto

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil
Interests: HTLV-1/2; HTLV-associated diseases; human retrovirology; persistent viral infections (HIV, HTLV, HCV, HBV and others)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

HTLV infection is frequently detected in some areas of the world. In Latin America, several countries have documented endemic areas. HTLV-1 infection is the cause of a progressive, degenerative neurological disease (HAM/TSP) and a deadly malignancy, the adult T-cell Leukemia-lymphoma (ATLL). HTLV-2 is not conclusively associated with any specific disease, but its pathogenic potential is not completely ruled out. To date, there is no specific treatment for HTLV infection, and many aspects of the infection remain obscure. HIV infection is also endemic in Latin American countries, and despite increasing access to antiretroviral therapy, there are still many new infections and deaths caused by HIV every year. Coinfection by HIV and HTLV is also a frequent finding, and its consequences can be reciprocal.

This Special Issue will focus on different aspects of HTLV and HIV infections in Latin America. Epidemiological data, interaction with other infectious diseases, prognostic biomarkers, therapeutic approaches, and aspects of immune response are points of interest. In addition, any relevant information on the results of such problems will be also welcome. We will encourage reports on all information potentially relevant to Latin American countries.

Prof. Dr. Carlos Brites
Prof. Dr. Antonio Vallinoto
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • immune response HTLV-infected patients
  • HIV
  • Latin America
  • outcomes in coinfections
  • therapeutic strategies
  • epidemiology
  • surrogate markers
  • systematic reviews
  • novel clinical findings
  • immune activation

Published Papers (15 papers)

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11 pages, 1507 KiB  
Article
Impact of Protease Inhibitor-Based Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy on Fetal Subcutaneous Fat Tissue in HIV-Pregnant Women in a Middle-Income Country
by Hector Borboa-Olivares, Guadalupe Estrada-Gutierrez, Raigam Jafet Martinez-Portilla, Salvador Espino-y-Sosa, Arturo Flores-Pliego, Aurora Espejel-Nuñez, Ignacio Camacho-Arroyo, Juan Mario Solis-Paredes, Jose Rafael Villafan-Bernal and Johnatan Torres-Torres
Viruses 2024, 16(1), 10; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v16010010 - 20 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1107
Abstract
Background: HIV infection continues to be a global public health challenge, affecting approximately 1.7 million reproductive-aged women. Protease inhibitor-based highly active antiretroviral therapy (PI-HAART) has significantly reduced the risk of vertical transmission of HIV from mother to child. Nevertheless, concerns linger regarding the [...] Read more.
Background: HIV infection continues to be a global public health challenge, affecting approximately 1.7 million reproductive-aged women. Protease inhibitor-based highly active antiretroviral therapy (PI-HAART) has significantly reduced the risk of vertical transmission of HIV from mother to child. Nevertheless, concerns linger regarding the long-term effects, particularly on body composition, notably subcutaneous fat tissue (SFT). Although HIV-associated lipodystrophy syndrome (LS) has been well documented in adults and older children, its impact on fetuses exposed to PI-HAART remains underexplored. This study aims to evaluate SFT in the fetuses of HIV-pregnant women exposed to PI-HAART, assessing the potential clinical implications. Methods: We conducted a comparative study between HIV-pregnant women receiving PI-HAART and an HIV-negative control group. Fetometry measurements were obtained via 3D ultrasound. SFT in the fetal arm and thigh segments was assessed. Data were analyzed using lineal multivariate regression and receiver-operating characteristics (ROC)-curve analysis. Results: Fetuses exposed to PI-HAART exhibited a significant reduction in subcutaneous fat, particularly in the proximal third-middle union of the femur (coefficient: −2.588, p = 0.042). This reduction was correlated with lower newborn serum glucose levels (65.7 vs. 56.1, p = 0.007; coefficient: −1.277, p = 0.045). Conclusions: Our study sheds light on the connection between PI-HAART, fetal subcutaneous fat, and neonatal health. These findings might reveal the long-lasting effects of PI-HAART on newborns and children’s well-being. Our results emphasize the need for a more balanced approach to managing pregnant women with HIV in developing countries and open new venues for research on the impact of intrauterine PI-HAART exposure on energy metabolism and fetal programming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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11 pages, 677 KiB  
Article
HIV Drug Resistance in Adults Initiating or Reinitiating Antiretroviral Therapy in Uruguay—Results of a Nationally Representative Survey, 2018–2019
by Rosa Flieller, Susana Cabrera, Dora Ruchansky, Amalia Girón-Callejas, María Brasesco, Daniel Pérez, Héctor Chiparelli, Claudia García-Morales, Daniela Tapia-Trejo, Jessica Monreal-Flores, Giovanni Ravasi, Michael R. Jordan and Santiago Ávila-Ríos
Viruses 2023, 15(2), 490; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15020490 - 10 Feb 2023
Viewed by 1541
Abstract
The first nationally representative cross-sectional HIV drug resistance (HIVDR) survey was conducted in Uruguay in 2018–2019 among adults diagnosed with HIV and initiating or reinitiating antiretroviral therapy (ART). Protease, reverse transcriptase, and integrase genes of HIV-1 were sequenced. A total of [...] Read more.
The first nationally representative cross-sectional HIV drug resistance (HIVDR) survey was conducted in Uruguay in 2018–2019 among adults diagnosed with HIV and initiating or reinitiating antiretroviral therapy (ART). Protease, reverse transcriptase, and integrase genes of HIV-1 were sequenced. A total of 206 participants were enrolled in the survey; 63.2% were men, 85.7% were >25 years of age, and 35.6% reported previous exposure to antiretroviral (ARV) drugs. The prevalence of HIVDR to efavirenz or nevirapine was significantly higher (OR: 1.82, p < 0.001) in adults with previous ARV drug exposure (20.3%, 95% CI: 18.7–22.0%) compared to adults without previous ARV drug exposure (12.3%, 11.0–13.8%). HIVDR to any nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors was 10.3% (9.4–11.2%). HIVDR to ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors was 1.5% (1.1–2.1%); resistance to ritonavir-boosted darunavir was 0.9% (0.4–2.1%) among adults without previous ARV drug exposure and it was not observed among adults with previous ARV drug exposure. Resistance to integrase inhibitors was 12.7% (11.7–13.8%), yet HIVDR to dolutegravir, bictegravir, and cabotegravir was not observed. The high level (>10%) of HIVDR to efavirenz highlights the need to accelerate the transition to the WHO-recommended dolutegravir-based ART. Access to dolutegravir-based ART should be prioritised for people reporting previous ARV drug exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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13 pages, 1410 KiB  
Article
High Concordance between D:A:Dr and the Framingham Risk Score in Brazilians Living with HIV
by Vitor Souza, Victória Valadares, Thais Dias and Carlos Brites
Viruses 2023, 15(2), 348; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15020348 - 26 Jan 2023
Viewed by 1339
Abstract
People living with HIV (PLHIV) have twice the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, making it essential to identify high cardiovascular risk (CVR). However, there is no validated CVR calculator for PLHIV in Brazil. We performed a cross-sectional study with 265 individuals living with [...] Read more.
People living with HIV (PLHIV) have twice the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, making it essential to identify high cardiovascular risk (CVR). However, there is no validated CVR calculator for PLHIV in Brazil. We performed a cross-sectional study with 265 individuals living with HIV, aged 40 to 74 years, to assess the agreement between three CVR scores: Framingham Risk Score (FRS), Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease (ASCVD) Risk Score, and a specific for PLHIV, Reduced Data Collection on Adverse Effects of Anti-HIV Drugs (D:A:Dr). We assessed agreement using the weighted Kappa coefficient and the Bland-Altman plot. The median age was 52 years (47–58), 58.9% were men, 34% were hypertensive and 8.3% had a detectable viral load. There was an almost perfect agreement between D:A:Dr x FRS (k = 0.82; 95% CI 0.77–0.87; p < 0.001), and substantial agreement between FRS vs. ASCVD (k = 0.74; 95% CI 0.69–0.79; p < 0.001) and between D:A:Dr vs. ASCVD (k = 0.70; 95% CI 0.64–0.76; p < 0.001). The Bland-Altman plot revealed greater discordance between scores as the CVR increased. Our results suggest that the FRS and the D:A:Dr are adequate to classify the CVR in this population, and the D:A:Dr score can be used as an alternative to the FRS in Brazil, as other international guidelines have already advocated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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13 pages, 1369 KiB  
Article
HTLV-1/2 in Indigenous Peoples of the Brazilian Amazon: Seroprevalence, Molecular Characterization and Sociobehavioral Factors Related to Risk of Infection
by Isabella Nogueira Abreu, Carlos Neandro Cordeiro Lima, Eliene Rodrigues Putira Sacuena, Felipe Teixeira Lopes, Maria Karoliny da Silva Torres, Bernardo Cintra dos Santos, Vanessa de Oliveira Freitas, Leonardo Gabriel Campelo Pinto de Figueiredo, Keise Adrielle Santos Pereira, Aline Cecy Rocha de Lima, Wandrey Roberto dos Santos Brito, Bruno José Sarmento Botelho, Janete Silvana Souza Gonçalves, Sandra Souza Lima, Izaura Maria Vieira Cayres Vallinoto, João Farias Guerreiro, Ricardo Ishak and Antonio Carlos Rosário Vallinoto
Viruses 2023, 15(1), 22; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15010022 - 21 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1853
Abstract
HTLV-1/2 infection is endemic in Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Its origin is attributed to the migratory flow of Amerindian ancestral peoples. The present study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of HTLV-1/2 infection in Indigenous peoples of the Brazilian Amazon. A total of [...] Read more.
HTLV-1/2 infection is endemic in Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Its origin is attributed to the migratory flow of Amerindian ancestral peoples. The present study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of HTLV-1/2 infection in Indigenous peoples of the Brazilian Amazon. A total of 3350 Indigenous people belonging to 15 communities were investigated. The investigation was performed using serological (ELISA), molecular (qPCR) and confirmatory (Western blot and/or Inno-Lia) tests to detect and differentiate the infection. The seroprevalence was 8.3% for HTLV-1/2 infection, with 0.1% of individuals seropositive for HTLV-1 and 8.1% for HTLV-2. The prevalence of infection was statistically higher in women (10.1%) than in men (6.5%) (p = 0.0002). This female predominance was observed in all age groups; in females the prevalence was significant from 41 years old (p < 0.0001) and in males from 51 years old (p < 0.0001). Here, we present a prevalence of HTLV-1/2 among Indigenous peoples of the Brazilian Amazon. The endemic infection in these groups must reflect the different epidemiological profiles observed in these peoples, such as sexual transmission through rejection of condom use, breastfeeding, especially in cases of cross-breastfeeding, and the high rate of pregnancy in the villages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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14 pages, 2390 KiB  
Article
Comparative HIV-1 Proviral Dynamics in Two Individuals That Maintained Viral Replication Control with or without Antiretroviral Therapy following Superinfection
by Suwellen Sardinha Dias de Azevedo, Fernanda H. Côrtes, Larissa M. Villela, Brenda Hoagland, Beatriz Grinsztejn, Valdilea G. Veloso, Mariza G. Morgado and Gonzalo Bello
Viruses 2022, 14(12), 2802; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14122802 - 15 Dec 2022
Viewed by 1100
Abstract
The analysis of the HIV-1 proviral dynamics after superinfection in the context of both natural and antiretroviral therapy (ART)-mediated suppression could yield unique insights into understanding the persistence of viral variants that seeded the infected cells at different times. In this study, we [...] Read more.
The analysis of the HIV-1 proviral dynamics after superinfection in the context of both natural and antiretroviral therapy (ART)-mediated suppression could yield unique insights into understanding the persistence of viral variants that seeded the infected cells at different times. In this study, we performed a longitudinal analysis of the env diversity of PBMC-associated HIV DNA quasispecies in two HIV controllers (EEC09 and VC32) that were superinfected with subtype F1 viruses several years after primoinfection with subtype B viruses. Patient EEC09 started ART soon after superinfection, while patient VC32 maintained a natural control of virus replication for at least six years following the superinfection. Our analysis revealed no significant temporal changes in the overall proportion of primo-infecting and superinfecting proviral variants over 2–3 years after superinfection in both HIV controllers. Upon the introduction of ART, individual EEC09 displayed no evidence of HIV-infected cell turnover or viral evolution, while subject VC32 displayed some level of HIV-infected cell reseeding and detectable evolution (divergence) of both viral variants. These results confirm that proviral variants that seeded the reservoir at different times throughout infection could persist for long periods under fully suppressive ART or natural viremic control, but the HIV-1 proviral dynamics could be different in both settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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12 pages, 1072 KiB  
Article
Change in Nutritional and Biochemical Status in People Living with HIV-1 on Antiretroviral Therapy
by Ranilda Gama de Souza, Sandra Souza Lima, Andresa Corrêa Pinto, Jacqueline Silva Souza, Tuane Carolina Ferreira Moura, Ednelza da Silva Graça Amoras, Luiz Fernando Almeida Machado, João Farias Guerreiro, Antonio Carlos Rosário Vallinoto, Maria Alice Freitas Queiroz and Ricardo Ishak
Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2573; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14112573 - 20 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1561
Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) improves the quality of life of people living with HIV-1 (PLHIV) and reduces the mortality rate, but some individuals may develop metabolic abnormalities. This study evaluated changes in the nutritional status and biochemistry of PLHIV on antiretroviral therapy in a [...] Read more.
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) improves the quality of life of people living with HIV-1 (PLHIV) and reduces the mortality rate, but some individuals may develop metabolic abnormalities. This study evaluated changes in the nutritional status and biochemistry of PLHIV on antiretroviral therapy in a cohort that had not previously received ART and to follow up these individuals for 24 months after starting treatment. The initial cohort consisted of 110 individuals and ended with 42 people, assessed by a physical examination. A biochemical assay was performed using the colorimetric enzyme reaction technique, the proviral load was detected by qPCR and the quantification of the CD4/CD8 T lymphocytes was conducted by flow cytometry. PLHIV had increased levels of total cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides, ALT, urea and creatinine after 24 months of ART use (p < 0.05). In the assessment of the nutritional status, PLHIV had increased measures of Triciptal Skinfold, body mass index and arm circumference after the use of ART (p < 0.05). The viral load levels decreased and the CD4 levels increased after 24 months of ART use (p < 0.05). The change in the nutritional status in PLHIV on antiretroviral therapy seems to be a slow process, occurring in the long term, therefore, there is the need for a constant evaluation of these people to identify patients who need a nutritional intervention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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12 pages, 1969 KiB  
Article
Postural Adjustments in HTLV-1 Infected Patients during a Self-Initiated Perturbation
by Gizele Cristina Da Silva Almeida, Hélio Resque Azevedo, Kelly Helorany Alves Costa, Alex Tadeu Viana da Cruz Júnior, Daniela Rosa Garcez, Givago da Silva Souza and Bianca Callegari
Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2389; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14112389 - 28 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1541
Abstract
Background: Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection can be associated with tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP/HAM), which causes neurological myelopathy and sensory and muscle tone alterations, leading to gait and balance impairments. Once trunk perturbation is predicted, the motor control system uses [...] Read more.
Background: Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection can be associated with tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP/HAM), which causes neurological myelopathy and sensory and muscle tone alterations, leading to gait and balance impairments. Once trunk perturbation is predicted, the motor control system uses anticipatory and compensatory mechanisms to maintain balance by recruiting postural muscles and displacement of the body’s center of mass. Methods: Twenty-six participants (control or infected) had lower limb muscle onset and center of pressure (COP) displacements assessed prior to perturbation and throughout the entire movement. Results: Semitendinosus (ST) showed delayed onset in the infected group compared to the control group. The percentage of trials with detectable anticipatory postural adjustment was also lower in infected groups in the tibialis anterior and ST. In addition, COP displacement in the infected group was delayed, had a smaller amplitude, and took longer to reach the maximum displacement. Conclusions: HTLV-1 infected patients have less efficient anticipatory adjustments and greater difficulty recovering their postural control during the compensatory phase. Clinical assessment of this population should consider postural stability during rehabilitation programs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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13 pages, 977 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Static Balance Control in Infected Htlv-1 Subjects with Different Tsp/Ham Diagnosis
by Kelly Helorany Alves Costa, Patrícia Seixas Alves Santos, Gizele Cristina da Silva Almeida, Andrew Sousa Caires, Beatriz Helena Baldez Vasconcelos, Ramon Costa Lima, Mariangela Moreno Domingues, Maria da Conceição Nascimento Pinheiro, Rita Catarina Medeiros Sousa, Anselmo de Athayde Costa e Silva, Givago Silva Souza and Bianca Callegari
Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2334; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14112334 - 25 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 946
Abstract
(1) Background: Tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP/HAM) associated with the T cell lymphotropic virus in type I humans (HTLV-1) is a slow, chronic, and progressive disease that causes balance changes. TSP/HAM diagnosis can be classified as probable, possible, and definite. We compared the static [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP/HAM) associated with the T cell lymphotropic virus in type I humans (HTLV-1) is a slow, chronic, and progressive disease that causes balance changes. TSP/HAM diagnosis can be classified as probable, possible, and definite. We compared the static balance control of HTLV-1-infected patients with different TSP/HAM diagnosis. (2) Methods: Our sample consisted of 13 participants infected with HTLV-1 and 16 healthy participants. The center of pressure was recorded using a force platform with open and closed eyes. We divided the recordings into three intervals, period T1 (corresponds to the first 10 s); period T2 (from 10 to 45 s); period T3 (from 45 to 55 s). (3) Results: Eight participants infected with HTLV-1 were classified as probable TSP/HAM and five participants infected with HTLV-1 were classified as definite TSP/HAM. There was a significant increase in postural instability in patients with definite PET/MAH considering the structural and global variables of body sway compared to the control and the probable TSP/HAM. (4) Conclusions: We concluded that the severity of balance is directly related to the degree of signs and symptoms of TSP/HAM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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16 pages, 3097 KiB  
Article
HIV, HTLV, and Hepatitis B and C Infection in Blood Donors in Bahia, Brazil from 2008 to 2017
by Estela Luz, Marinho Marques, Eduardo Martins Netto, Luisa Meireles Campos, Sávio Amaral, Iraildes Santana, Eduardo Luz Marques and Carlos Brites
Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2323; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14112323 - 22 Oct 2022
Viewed by 1550
Abstract
Although blood transfusion is an important therapeutic resource, transfusion-transmitted infections (TTIs) are still a cause for concern. Measures to mitigate this risk involve improvement of donor screening criteria and improvements in laboratory tests, especially the use of nucleic acid test (NAT). In this [...] Read more.
Although blood transfusion is an important therapeutic resource, transfusion-transmitted infections (TTIs) are still a cause for concern. Measures to mitigate this risk involve improvement of donor screening criteria and improvements in laboratory tests, especially the use of nucleic acid test (NAT). In this retrospective study we evaluated HIV, HTLV, HCV and HBV infection rates in blood donors of the Hematology and Hemotherapy Foundation of Bahia (Hemoba), Brazil, through serological and NAT results and the characteristics of donors. From February/2008 to December/2017, 777,446 blood donations were made. Most donors were male, aged 25–44 years, black and mixed race, and single or divorced. The density-type incidence (DTI; per 100,000) for each virus was 91.1 for HBV; 66.5 for HCV; 54.3 for HIV; and 33.9 for HTLV, with a decreasing trend observed over the period studied, except in the last biennium. NAT detected only 1 donor in immunological window for HIV (0.46/100,000 donations) and 3 donors in immunological window for HBV (1.8/100,000 donations). Serological positivity for all viruses studied was higher in the metropolitan region of Salvador, the state capital. Conclusion: DTI rates show a decreasing trend over the years studied, with a predominance of HBV infection. NAT allowed the detection of donors in immunological window periods, having an important role in improving transfusion safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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10 pages, 2208 KiB  
Article
Prevalence and Risk Factors for HTLV-1/2 Infection inRiverside and Rural Populations of the State of Pará
by Aline Cecy Rocha de Lima, Felipe Teixeira Lopes, Vanessa de Oliveira Freitas, Michele Nascimento Assad, Renata Santos de Sousa, Janete Silvana Souza Gonçalves, Jayanne Lílian Carvalho Gomes, Bernardo Cintra dos Santos, Carlos Neandro Cordeiro Lima, Isabella Nogueira Abreu, Wandrey Roberto dos Santos Brito, Keise Adrielle Santos Pereira, Maria Karoliny da Silva Torres, Sandra Souza Lima, Cíntia Yolette Urbano Aben-Athar, João Farias Guerreiro, Izaura M. V. Cayres Vallinoto, Antonio Carlos Rosário Vallinoto and Rosimar Neris Martins Feitosa
Viruses 2022, 14(10), 2262; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14102262 - 15 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1742
Abstract
Human T-lymphotropic viruses 1 and 2 (HTLV-1 and HTLV-2) infection has been described in several Amazonian populations; however, there is still a lack of data on the prevalence of the virus in riparian populations living in rural areas of the state of Pará. [...] Read more.
Human T-lymphotropic viruses 1 and 2 (HTLV-1 and HTLV-2) infection has been described in several Amazonian populations; however, there is still a lack of data on the prevalence of the virus in riparian populations living in rural areas of the state of Pará. The present study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of HTLV-1/2 infection in four riverine communities and one rural area in the state of Pará and to describe the possible risk factors for infection. A total of 907 individuals responded to an epidemiological survey and gave blood samples collected for anti-HTLV-1/2 antibodies by immunoenzymatic assay (EIA). The serum-reactive samples were subjected to confirmation by an in-line assay (Inno-Lia) and by proviral DNA screening using real-time PCR (qPCR). The total prevalence was 0.8% (7/907) for HTLV-1/2 (CI: 0.2−1.3%), with 0.66% HTLV-1 and 0.11% HTLV-2. The prevalence by sex was 0.7% in women (4/565) and 0.9% in men (3/342). Among seropositive patients, 83.3% (5/7) reported being sexually active, and 57.1% (4/7) reported not having the habit of using condoms during their sexual relations. Intrafamily infection was also observed. The results reinforce the need for public policies to prevent and block the spread of HTLV, especially in riparian communities that are subject to difficulties in accessing the Unified Health System (Sistema Único de Saúde/SUS) because infected individuals need clinical monitoring for surveillance and early diagnosis of symptoms associated with HTLV-1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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18 pages, 3946 KiB  
Article
Lessons from the Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis of HTLV-1-Infected Individuals: Biomarkers of Inflammation for HAM/TSP Development
by Nicole Lardini Freitas, Yago Côrtes Pinheiro Gomes, Flávia dos Santos Souza, Rafael Carvalho Torres, Juliana Echevarria-Lima, Ana Claudia Celestino Bezerra Leite, Marco Antonio Sales Dantas Lima, Abelardo Queiroz Campos Araújo, Marcus Tulius Teixeira Silva and Otávio de Melo Espíndola
Viruses 2022, 14(10), 2146; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14102146 - 29 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1872
Abstract
HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) is a neurodegenerative disease that leads to motor impairment due to a chronic inflammatory process in the central nervous system (CNS). However, the HAM/TSP pathogenesis is not completely clear, and biomarkers to define the disease prognosis are still [...] Read more.
HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) is a neurodegenerative disease that leads to motor impairment due to a chronic inflammatory process in the central nervous system (CNS). However, the HAM/TSP pathogenesis is not completely clear, and biomarkers to define the disease prognosis are still necessary. Thus, we aimed to identify biomarkers for HAM/TSP and potential mechanisms involved in disease development. To that end, the concentrations of VILIP-1, BDNF, VEGF, β-NGF, TGF-β1, fractalkine/CX3CL1, IL-6, IL-18, and TNF-α, and the soluble forms of TREM-1, TREM-2, and RAGE, were assessed using a multiplex bead-based immunoassay in paired cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum samples from HAM/TSP patients (n = 20), asymptomatic HTLV-1 carriers (AC) (n = 13), and HTLV-1-seronegative individuals (n = 9), with the results analyzed according to the speed of HAM/TSP progression. HAM/TSP patients had elevated fractalkine in the serum but not in the CSF, particularly those with low neuroinflammatory activity (CSF/serum ratio of neopterin <1 and of CXCL10 < 2). HAM/TSP patients with normal CSF levels of neurofilament light chain (NfL) showed elevated β-NGF in serum, and serum BDNF levels were increased in HTLV-1-infected individuals, particularly in HTLV-1 AC. Both HTLV-1 AC and HAM/TSP patients had lower TGF-β1 levels in CSF compared to uninfected individuals, and HAM/TSP patients with active CNS inflammation showed higher CSF levels of IL-18, which correlated with markers of inflammation, neuronal death, and blood–brain-barrier permeability. Although none of the factors evaluated were associated with the speed of HAM/TSP progression, reduced TGF-β1 levels in CSF suggest that suppressive responses to control subclinical and/or active neurodegeneration are impaired, while increased CSF IL-18 indicates the involvement of inflammasome-mediated mechanisms in HAM/TSP development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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15 pages, 1378 KiB  
Article
Molecular Epidemiology of HIV-1 among Prisoners in Central Brazil and Evidence of Transmission Clusters
by Tayana Serpa Ortiz Tanaka, Gabriela Alves Cesar, Grazielli Rocha de Rezende, Marco Antonio Moreira Puga, Sabrina Moreira dos Santos Weis-Torres, Larissa Melo Bandeira, Maurício Antônio Pompílio, Julio Croda, Monick Lindenmeyer Guimarães and Ana Rita Coimbra Motta-Castro
Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1660; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14081660 - 28 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1668
Abstract
Higher rates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have been detected in prisoners when compared with the general population, but research into HIV molecular epidemiology and its transmission network has been lacking among them. Thus, this study aimed to verify potential HIV molecular [...] Read more.
Higher rates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have been detected in prisoners when compared with the general population, but research into HIV molecular epidemiology and its transmission network has been lacking among them. Thus, this study aimed to verify potential HIV molecular transmission networks among prisoners. In addition, we aimed to describe the mutations related to antiretroviral resistance in these isolates. Thus, we conducted a cross-sectional survey from 2013 to 2018 in prisons in Central-Western Brazil, and the final sampling composed of 84 prisoners. Proviral DNA was extracted from each whole blood sample followed by amplification of the partial polymerase gene and sequencing. Forty-nine sequences (58.3%) were classified as subtype B, followed by C (14.3%), D, and F1 (2.4% each). A complex and dynamic HIV-1 epidemic is observed in the prisons, as 25% of the sequences were recombinant forms. We detected 15 HIV transmission clusters composed of at least two sequences, that included not only prisoners but also individuals from the general population from the same State with a variety of risk behaviors. Thirty-two percent (32.0%) of treatment-experienced prisoners had at least one drug resistance mutation (DRM), while transmitted DRMs were found in 5.9% of the prisoners. We highlight the urgent need for routine surveillance of HIV-1 infection including resistance genotypic tests considering the high disease burden, risky behaviors inside prisons, and the dynamic relationship of prisoners with the outside community. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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11 pages, 674 KiB  
Article
Association of the p75NTR Ser205Leu Polymorphism with Asymptomatic HTLV-1 Infection
by Maria Alice Freitas Queiroz, Felipe Teixeira Lopes, Bruno José Sarmento Botelho, Maria Karoliny da Silva Torres, Ednelza da Graça Silva Amoras, Carlos A. da Costa, Maísa Silva Sousa, Ricardo Ishak and Antonio Carlos Rosário Vallinoto
Viruses 2022, 14(6), 1175; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14061175 - 28 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1516
Abstract
Genetic variations in components of the immune response seem to be an important factor that contributes to the manifestation of symptoms of some diseases related to HTLV-1 infection. Nerve growth factor (NGF) and the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) are related to [...] Read more.
Genetic variations in components of the immune response seem to be an important factor that contributes to the manifestation of symptoms of some diseases related to HTLV-1 infection. Nerve growth factor (NGF) and the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) are related to the maintenance of neurons and the activation of the immune response. In this study, we evaluated the association of the NGF -198C/T, NGF Ala35Val, and p75NTR Ser205Leu polymorphisms with HTLV-1 infection and plasma cytokine levels in 166 samples from individuals infected with HTLV-1 (59 symptomatic and 107 asymptomatic). The genotyping and quantification of the proviral load were performed by real-time PCR, and cytokine levels were measured by ELISA. The NGF -198C/T and NGF Ala35Val polymorphisms were not associated with HTLV-1 infection. The frequency of the Ser/Leu genotype of p75NTR Ser205Leu was more frequent in the control group (p = 0.0385), and the Ser/Leu genotype and allele Leu were more frequent among the asymptomatic (p < 0.05), especially with respect to the HTLV-1-associated myelopathy (HAM) group (p < 0.05). The symptomatic showed a higher proviral load and higher TNF-α and IL-10 levels (p < 0.05). Asymptomatic carriers of the Ser/Leu genotype (p = 0.0797) had lower levels of proviral load and higher levels of TNF-α (p = 0.0507). Based on the results obtained, we conclude that the p75NTR Ser205Leu polymorphism may be associated with reduced susceptibility to HTLV-1 infection, a lower risk of developing symptoms, including HAM, and better infection control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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10 pages, 836 KiB  
Opinion
Transfusion-Acquired HIV: History, Evolution of Screening Tests, and Current Challenges of Unreported Antiretroviral Drug Use in Brazil
by Anna S. Nishiya, Suzete C. Ferreira, Nanci A. Salles, Vanderson Rocha and Alfredo Mendrone-Júnior
Viruses 2022, 14(10), 2214; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14102214 - 08 Oct 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1746
Abstract
Prevention of HIV acquisition by blood transfusion from its emergence to the present day is reviewed, and current challenges are delineated. The experience of Fundação Pró-Sangue/Hemocentro de São Paulo, Brazil, is highlighted in the quest for improvements in blood safety and the evolution [...] Read more.
Prevention of HIV acquisition by blood transfusion from its emergence to the present day is reviewed, and current challenges are delineated. The experience of Fundação Pró-Sangue/Hemocentro de São Paulo, Brazil, is highlighted in the quest for improvements in blood safety and the evolution of increasingly sensitive and specific screening tests. Concerns and establishing stringent criteria in the screening of potential blood donors are emphasized, and the current criteria for identifying and deferring candidates at high risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases are summarized. Future challenges relate to the identification of donors with unreported use of antiretroviral drugs for prophylaxis against possible HIV exposure or for treatment of an HIV infection whose viral expression is undetectable by current analyses. There is a need to better understand the motivation of HIV-exposed donors and to educate them about the risk of transfusion-mediated HIV transmission despite having low or undetectable viral loads. In situations in which traditional HIV RNA or antibody detection assays remain negative, more sensitive analyses are needed to identify potential donors at risk for HIV transmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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6 pages, 2854 KiB  
Case Report
The First Two Cases of Monkeypox Infection in MSM in Bahia, Brazil, and Viral Sequencing
by Carlos Brites, Felice Deminco, Marcia Sampaio Sá, Jean Tadeu Brito, Estela Luz and Andreas Stocker
Viruses 2022, 14(9), 1841; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14091841 - 23 Aug 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1897
Abstract
Monkeypox infection is rapidly spreading across the world. Despite the increasing number of cases, only a few reports have been published, and most are on people living without HIV. We report here the first two cases of monkeypox infection in Bahia, Brazil, one [...] Read more.
Monkeypox infection is rapidly spreading across the world. Despite the increasing number of cases, only a few reports have been published, and most are on people living without HIV. We report here the first two cases of monkeypox infection in Bahia, Brazil, one of them in a person living with HIV, on stable treatment. Both cases had a similar evolution, with a limited number of lesions and mild symptoms, with a complete recovery after 7–10 days. The potential route of transmission was via oral sex for the first case and was undefined for the second one. Both cases were confirmed through detection of the viral genome by PCR, and the partial sequence of the first case indicates the infection was caused by the West African clade. These cases confirm that monkeypox infection is currently being transmitted in Brazil and that people living with HIV on stable treatment are not likely to present a more severe form of monkeypox. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art HIV and HTLV Research in Latin America)
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