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Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II
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Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2023) | Viewed by 20196

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Haifeng Jia

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Environmental Planning and Management, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Interests: environmental planning and management; environmental system analysis; water quality and the hydrology model
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Jiangyong Hu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
Interests: advanced oxidation process; emerging contaminant detection and removal; water disinfection technology; biofilm control; stormwater management; water treatment and reuse; water quality assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Dafang Fu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Municipal Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
Interests: sponge city; urban hydrology; water resource management; water environment and aquatic ecosystem restoration
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Wei-Shan Chen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Environmental Technology Group, Wageningen University & Research (WUR), Wageningen,The Netherlands
Interests: nature-based solutions; blue-green infrastructure; urban infrastructure transition; adaptation/transition pathway analysis; rainwater harvest; water reuse; life cycle assessment

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are seeking papers for the Special Issue “Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II”.

Rapid urbanization, which sometimes lacks adequate planning and design, has led to worsening city syndrome situations, such as urban flooding, water pollution, heat-island effects, and ecologic deterioration. Sponge city construction—which integrates green and gray infrastructure—principles have become the new paradigm for a sustainable urban stormwater management strategy.

Deviating from the traditional rapid-draining approach, the new paradigm calls for the use of natural systems, such as soil and vegetation, as part of the urban runoff control strategy. It has become a widespread focus in urban water management research and practices globally. In this context, in order to present the latest developments, technologies, and case studies related to urban runoff control and sponge city construction, following the success of “Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction I”，we would like to propose this Special Issue.

All manuscripts related to the proposed topic are welcome. Topics of interest include but are not limited to the following: theories and technologies of sponge city construction; urban hydrology; methods of quantifying the benefits of a sponge city; rainwater utilization; practices that mitigate urban flooding and soil erosion; the performance of GI; the impact of media; preferential flow paths; vegetation; climate; design of the hydrological, hydrodynamic and pollutant removal processes; and case studies on sustainable urban design and management using LID-GI principles and practices. Contributions to this Special Issue could include GI laboratory and field tests, innovative doped-media, or design and modelling approaches for simulating event-based or long-term performance.

Original research papers or critical reviews are encouraged.

Prof. Dr. Haifeng Jia
Prof. Dr. Jiangyong Hu
Prof. Dr. Dafang Fu
Dr. Wei-Shan Chen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Urban runoff
  • Sponge city
  • Nature-based solutions
  • LID
  • SUDS
  • Monitoring and evaluation
  • Modelling
  • Planning and management
  • Urban flooding
  • Urban river rehabilitation

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 155 KiB  
Editorial
Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction: Important Topics
by Haifeng Jia, Jiangyong Hu, Dafang Fu and Wei-Shan Chen
Water 2024, 16(3), 497; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w16030497 - 04 Feb 2024
Viewed by 775
Abstract
Rapid urbanization, which leads to a lack of adequate planning and design, has led to worsening city syndrome situations [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)

Research

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18 pages, 8708 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Performance of Permeable Pavement in Mitigating Flooding in Urban Areas
by Yueh-Tan Lee, Min-Che Ho, Yi-Shain Chiou and Li-Ling Huang
Water 2023, 15(20), 3551; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15203551 - 11 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1408
Abstract
In the case of rapid urban development, the impact of extreme climates on the world is gradually increasing, resulting in frequent flood events. However, Taiwan is still in the stage of urban development, and it is necessary to develop more roads. Therefore, determining [...] Read more.
In the case of rapid urban development, the impact of extreme climates on the world is gradually increasing, resulting in frequent flood events. However, Taiwan is still in the stage of urban development, and it is necessary to develop more roads. Therefore, determining how to reduce the impact of road engineering on the environment is one of the major issues currently faced. Therefore, a demonstration road of a general pavement and a permeable pavement was built in Dahua North Street, Taoyuan City, Taiwan, and rainwater was stored in a central irrigation ditch and a permeable pavement through an innovative construction method for reuse in agricultural irrigation. In addition, monitoring instruments and management systems were built, and the flow law formula was established, with R2 greater than 0.9. The actual discharge and peak discharge of the permeable pavement and general pavement were analyzed. According to the data analysis results, it can be seen that the permeable pavement can effectively reduce the peak discharge of 60~75%, which not only can achieve the benefit of low-impact development but also can reuse rainwater. The patent application can be used as an example for the application of permeable pavement in Taiwan in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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19 pages, 8748 KiB  
Article
Impact of Storm Characteristics on Infiltration Dynamics in Sponge Cities Using SWMM
by Yuanyuan Yang, Zijian Shao, Xiaoyan Xu and Dengfeng Liu
Water 2023, 15(19), 3367; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15193367 - 25 Sep 2023
Viewed by 819
Abstract
Effective stormwater management in urban areas requires enhancing the permeability of underlying surfaces. However, the impact of storm characteristics on infiltration processes in sponge cities remains insufficiently explored. This study uses the Horton method within the storm water management model to investigate how [...] Read more.
Effective stormwater management in urban areas requires enhancing the permeability of underlying surfaces. However, the impact of storm characteristics on infiltration processes in sponge cities remains insufficiently explored. This study uses the Horton method within the storm water management model to investigate how uniform and Chicago storm parameters affect infiltration rates. Our findings provide valuable insights: (1) Increasing porous pavement area proportionally reduces subarea sizes within subcatchments, and infiltration rates of porous pavements are supply-controlled. (2) Uniform storms result in consistent initial infiltration rates across pervious areas, subcatchments, and the entire catchment. The duration of this stable state decreases with higher return periods. Catchment infiltration volumes exhibit linear growth with greater storm intensities (R-squared = 0.999). (3) Peak infiltration rates and moments for pervious areas, subcatchments, and the overall catchment exhibit correlations with both the return period and the time-to-peak coefficient, with correlation coefficients ranging from −0.9914 to 0.9986 and p-values ranging from 0.0334 to 0.6923. This study quantifies the influence of design storm parameters on infiltration, providing valuable insights for stormwater infrastructure design and urban stormwater control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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15 pages, 2653 KiB  
Article
Comparisons of Retention and Lag Characteristics of Rainfall–Runoff under Different Rainfall Scenarios in Low-Impact Development Combination: A Case Study in Lingang New City, Shanghai
by Chen Zhang, Yongpeng Lv, Jian Chen, Tao Chen, Jinqiao Liu, Lei Ding, Nan Zhang and Qiang Gao
Water 2023, 15(17), 3106; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15173106 - 30 Aug 2023
Viewed by 838
Abstract
An increasing focus has been given to stormwater management using low-impact development (LID), which is regarded as a “near-nature” concept and is utilized to manage and reduce surface runoff during the rainfall–runoff process. According to the hydrological monitoring data, we evaluated the retention [...] Read more.
An increasing focus has been given to stormwater management using low-impact development (LID), which is regarded as a “near-nature” concept and is utilized to manage and reduce surface runoff during the rainfall–runoff process. According to the hydrological monitoring data, we evaluated the retention and lag characteristics of rainfall–runoff in LID combination under three rainfall-intensity scenarios (light–moderate, heavy, and torrential rainfall) in Lingang New City in Shanghai. LID facilities have been constructed for three years in the target study area, including rain gardens, retention ponds, green parking, porous pavement, and grass swales. The average runoff retention was 10.6 mm, 21.3 mm, and 41.6 mm under light–moderate, heavy, and torrential rainfall scenarios, respectively, and the corresponding runoff retention rate was 72.9%, 64.7%, and 76.1% during the study period. By comparing rainfall, runoff retention, runoff retention rate, cumulative rainfall, and lag times, it becomes evident that the ability to retain runoff can be greatly improved in the LID combination. The average runoff retention was significantly enhanced by nearly two times and four times under the heavy and torrential rainfall scenarios compared to the conditions under the light–moderate rainfall scenario. Furthermore, the lag time from the end of rainfall to the end of runoff (t2) and the lag time between the centroid of rainfall and the centroid of runoff (t3) showed a significantly negative correlation with rainfall intensity. Meanwhile, t3 presented an incredibly positive correlation with rainfall duration. In this study, the LID combination demonstrated superior benefits in extending the duration of runoff in rainfall events with lower rainfall amounts, and demonstrated significant overall lag effects in rainfall events with longer durations and lower rainfall amounts. These results confirmed the vital role of the LID combination in stormwater management and the hydrologic impact of the LID combination on rainfall-induced runoff retention and lag effects. This work has provided valuable insights into utilizing LID facilities and can contribute to a better understanding of how runoff retention and lag characteristics respond to different rainfall intensity scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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27 pages, 2135 KiB  
Article
Simulation and Comprehensive Evaluation of the Multidimensional Environmental Benefits of Sponge Cities
by Jingyu Wang, Xuehui Zhou, Shuai Wang, Lei Chen and Zhenyao Shen
Water 2023, 15(14), 2590; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15142590 - 16 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1130
Abstract
The implementation of grey and green infrastructure is an effective means to address urban flooding and nonpoint source pollution, but due to the complexity of the process and the diversity of benefits, there is a lack of measurement of the comprehensive benefits. Adopting [...] Read more.
The implementation of grey and green infrastructure is an effective means to address urban flooding and nonpoint source pollution, but due to the complexity of the process and the diversity of benefits, there is a lack of measurement of the comprehensive benefits. Adopting a typical university in Beijing as an example, this paper simulated the multidimensional benefits of the water quantity, water quality, and ecology of grey and green facility renovation by coupling the storm water management model (SWMM) and InfoWorks Integrated Catchment Management (ICM). Monetization methods and economical means were employed to characterize the comprehensive benefits. The results showed that grey and green infrastructure retrofitting reduced the number of severe overflow nodes in the study area by 54.35%, the total overflow volume by 22.17%, and the nonpoint source pollution level by approximately 80% under the heavy rain scenario and 60% under the rainstorm scenario. The annual benefits of grey and green infrastructure renovation reached CNY764,691/year: of this amount, CNY275,726/year was from hydrological regulation, CNY270,895/year was from nonpoint source pollution reduction, and CNY218,070/year was from ecological improvement. The benefits of green facilities were higher than those of grey facilities, and the combined benefits were negatively correlated with the rainfall level, with a total benefit–cost ratio of 1.19. The results provide methodological and data support for grey and green infrastructure retrofitting within the context of sponge cities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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14 pages, 3275 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Low Impact Development for Stormwater Runoff Treatment: A Case Study in Yixing, China
by Qian Cao, Jiashun Cao and Runze Xu
Water 2023, 15(5), 989; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15050989 - 04 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2261
Abstract
Low-impact development (LID) practices have been recognized as a promising strategy to control urban stormwater runoff and non-point source pollution in urban ecosystems. However, many experimental and modeling efforts are required to tailor an effective LID practice based on the hydraulic and environmental [...] Read more.
Low-impact development (LID) practices have been recognized as a promising strategy to control urban stormwater runoff and non-point source pollution in urban ecosystems. However, many experimental and modeling efforts are required to tailor an effective LID practice based on the hydraulic and environmental characteristics of a given region. In this study, the InfoWorks ICM was applied to simulate the runoff properties and determine the optimal LID design in a residential site at Yixing, China, based on four practical rainfall events. Additionally, the software was redeveloped using Ruby object-oriented programming to improve its efficiency in uncertainty analysis using the Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation method. The simulated runoff was in good agreement with the observed discharge (Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficients >0.86). The results of the response surface method indicated that when the sunken green belt, permeable pavement, and green roof covered 8.6%, 15%, and 10%, respectively, of the 11.3 ha study area, the designed system showed the best performance with relatively low cost. This study would provide new insights into designing urban rainfall-runoff pollution control systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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21 pages, 3554 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Preferential Flow in Artificial Substrates with Sedum Roots for Green Roofs: Experiments and Modeling
by Xuan Chen, Ruifen Liu, Defu Liu and Xiaokang Xin
Water 2023, 15(5), 914; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15050914 - 27 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1482
Abstract
The occurrence of preferential flow in vegetated artificial substrates can weaken the stormwater management performance of green roofs. To explore preferential flow, various plant–substrate combinations that involved two Sedum species (Sedum sarmentosum and Sedum lineare) and two artificial substrates for three [...] Read more.
The occurrence of preferential flow in vegetated artificial substrates can weaken the stormwater management performance of green roofs. To explore preferential flow, various plant–substrate combinations that involved two Sedum species (Sedum sarmentosum and Sedum lineare) and two artificial substrates for three depths of 6, 10, and 14 cm were established. Artificial substrates without plants were either perlite-based (namely, PAS) or vermiculite-based (namely, VAS), and they were also set as controls. Thereafter, solute breakthrough experiments were conducted, followed by inverse and forward modeling in Hydrus-1D. Skewness coefficients of all solute breakthrough curves were non-zero, suggesting a prevalence of preferential flow. The Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficients during calibration and validation were greater than 0.7. The obtained hydraulic parameters were different among various vegetated PAS and pure PAS without plants, but appeared the same for the VAS case. Rainfall intensity, plant species, and substrate depth, and the interaction of plant species and substrate depth all had significant effects on PAS preferential flow outflow and index (PFI). Substrate depth had a significant effect on VAS preferential flow and PFI. Since a 10 cm-PAS with S. lineare had the smallest PFI of 43.16% in simulation scenarios, its use may better control preferential flow in green roofs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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14 pages, 12037 KiB  
Article
Field Performance of Rain Garden in Red Soil Area in Southern China
by Chunli Chen, Yanqi Li, Wencai Le, Chengyun You, Zhenzhong Liu, Wei Liu and Ru Zhang
Water 2023, 15(2), 267; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15020267 - 08 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2337
Abstract
Sponge City, as a new concept in urban stormwater management, utilizes on-site or local hydrologic processes for runoff control and therefore is highly dependent on the geographical location (soil type) and site-specific climatic conditions. Field studies are valuable because of the insufficient quantity [...] Read more.
Sponge City, as a new concept in urban stormwater management, utilizes on-site or local hydrologic processes for runoff control and therefore is highly dependent on the geographical location (soil type) and site-specific climatic conditions. Field studies are valuable because of the insufficient quantity of field performance data in low-impact development (LID)-related research. Rain gardens are recommended for LID to manage stormwater. A rain garden was designed as a pilot project in Nanchang city, which is one of the typical red soil areas in southern China. Red soil is usually not conducive to runoff infiltration due to its low organic carbon, strong acidity and low permeability rainfall characteristics, but the permeability of the filter media layer is an important parameter in LID design. The construction depth of the rainwater garden was 600 mm, and 30% sand, 10% compost and 60% laterite were used as combined matrix; the permeability coefficient of medium layer was 1.48 × 10−5 m·s−1. Rainfall runoff control and pollutant removal efficiencies were studied based on the on-site conditions. The analysis of almost 2 years of field data showed that volume capture ratio of annual rainfall was 78.9%, the mean load removal of TSS, NH3-N, TP, TN, COD and NO3-N were 92.5%, 85.3%, 82.9%, 80.5%, 79.8% and 77.5%, respectively, which could meet the technical guidelines for sponge city construction in Nanchang. The research results could provide a basis for sponge city design in low organic carbon and low permeability areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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22 pages, 6922 KiB  
Article
Study on Multi-Objective Optimization of Sponge Facilities Combination at Urban Block Level: A Residential Complex Case Study in Nanjing, China
by Mingkun Xie, Yuning Cheng and Zengchuan Dong
Water 2022, 14(20), 3292; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w14203292 - 18 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1984
Abstract
Urban block-scale sponge system design needs address how to specify the optimal approach to combine the number of areas and types of sponge facilities for diverse land conditions and sponge system design objectives, while ensuring sponge performance and economic efficiency. With the gradual [...] Read more.
Urban block-scale sponge system design needs address how to specify the optimal approach to combine the number of areas and types of sponge facilities for diverse land conditions and sponge system design objectives, while ensuring sponge performance and economic efficiency. With the gradual application of multi-objective optimization algorithms in the design of sponge cities, multi-objective combinatorial problem solving for sponge facilities based on optimization algorithms is more accurate and efficient than traditional design methods based on the designer’s experience. This study utilizes a residential complex in Nanjing as a practical example, selects six types of typical sponge facilities to construct a multi-objective optimization combination model for sponge facilities, and employs the SPEA-2 algorithm to determine the optimal combination of sponge facility types and quantities. Finally, 186,754 combinations of sponge facilities were calculated. For the three sponge objectives of optimal performance and economy for stormwater infiltration and storage, optimal performance and economy for runoff pollution control, and optimal average overall performance for stormwater infiltration, runoff pollution control, and economy, a number of combinations of sponge types and numbers were obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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20 pages, 565 KiB  
Article
Comparison of the Transition to More Sustainable Stormwater Management in China and the USA
by Yitong Zhao, Mackay Price and Sam Trowsdale
Water 2022, 14(12), 1960; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w14121960 - 19 Jun 2022
Viewed by 1959
Abstract
This paper presents a comparative cross-nation study of the transition to more sustainable stormwater management (SSWM) in the United States and China. Multi-level perspective and multiphase models are used to examine the transition dynamics and reflect on how transition theory explains the change [...] Read more.
This paper presents a comparative cross-nation study of the transition to more sustainable stormwater management (SSWM) in the United States and China. Multi-level perspective and multiphase models are used to examine the transition dynamics and reflect on how transition theory explains the change within federal and socialist context. Instead of simply differentiating the two countries’ transition patterns by using terms such as bottom-up or top-down, we consider the importance of changes at all three levels of the system. The main difference between the transition process in the United States and China is the extent to which niche level innovations are developed, especially in the type of actors and activities investigated. The analysis suggests that the Chinese transition is less radical, while the U.S. pathway exhibits signs of reconfiguration, dealignment and realignment. Developing learning networks across sectors and actors to spread knowledge and experience appears to be the next major challenge for the Chinese Sponge City initiative. Despite the feasibility of transition theory for transition comparison, the author suggests its usage with caution and critical reflection to avoid the risk of embedding the mindset of ‘catch-up’ and convergence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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Review

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23 pages, 1149 KiB  
Review
Application of Analytical Probabilistic Models in Urban Runoff Control Systems’ Planning and Design: A Review
by Ali Aldrees and Salisu Dan’azumi
Water 2023, 15(9), 1640; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15091640 - 22 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1664
Abstract
Urban stormwater is known to cause a myriad of problems, ranging from flooding to water quality degradations. This paper provides an extensive review of analytical probabilistic model (APMs) used in the design of urban runoff control systems. APMs are closed-form mathematical expressions representing [...] Read more.
Urban stormwater is known to cause a myriad of problems, ranging from flooding to water quality degradations. This paper provides an extensive review of analytical probabilistic model (APMs) used in the design of urban runoff control systems. APMs are closed-form mathematical expressions representing a long-term system’s output performance derived from the probability distribution of the system’s input variables. Once derived, the APMs are easy to handle, allow for sensitive analysis, and can be co-opted into optimization frameworks. The implementation of APM in the planning and design of runoff control systems will not only help address the runoff quantity and quality problems of urban stormwater, but will also go a long way in optimizing the benefits derived from the systems. This paper reviews studies that document the negative impacts of urbanization on runoff quantity and quality, and the best management practices (BMPs) used to mitigate the impacts. Three design methodologies used in urban stormwater control systems were reviewed. A detailed review of research on the development and use of APMs in urban stormwater management in various runoff control systems is presented, and recommendations are proffered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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21 pages, 4227 KiB  
Review
Integrating Non-Targeted Ecosystem Services into Assessment of Natural Stormwater Treatment Systems
by Jennifer T. Le, Jennifer P. Gonzalez, Richard T. Carson, Richard F. Ambrose and Lisa A. Levin
Water 2023, 15(8), 1460; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w15081460 - 08 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1940
Abstract
Natural stormwater treatment systems (NTS) are built ecosystems designed to capture and treat stormwater runoff via natural processes. Although NTS design typically targets water services, the biological communities associated with NTS (i.e., plants, animals, and microbes) can provide non-targeted functions that can result [...] Read more.
Natural stormwater treatment systems (NTS) are built ecosystems designed to capture and treat stormwater runoff via natural processes. Although NTS design typically targets water services, the biological communities associated with NTS (i.e., plants, animals, and microbes) can provide non-targeted functions that can result in ecosystem services, such as biodiversity, pollination, and climate regulation, or in some cases disservices. Additional co-benefits of NTS include recreation, education and outreach opportunities, and aesthetic value. A review of NTS ecosystem services and co-benefits is provided with specific examples from Los Angeles County, highlighting the need for ecosystem services indicators, standard measurements, and monitoring. As NTS become globally widespread, best practices must include the ability to holistically assess NTS performance in ways that extend beyond water treatment services. Three models are presented that can be used to evaluate NTS performance. Such information can be important in advancing NTS design, choosing spatial placement, and making choices between NTS and more traditional stormwater treatment options. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Runoff Control and Sponge City Construction II)
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