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Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 July 2022) | Viewed by 56571

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Maria Torres Vega

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Guest Editor

IDLab-imec, Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, Zwijnaarde-Technologiepark 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: immersive media; quality of experience; future network management; tactile internet; artificial intelligence

Prof. Dr. Michele Russo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of History, Representation and Restoration of Architecture (DSDRA), Sapienza University of Rome, Via del Castro Laurenziano, 7/a, 00161 Roma, Italy
Interests: 3D modeling; architecture; 3D computer graphics; visualization; virtual reality; photogrammetry; augmented reality; modeling; geometry

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With the significant recent advances on augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR) technology, a plethora of interactive applications, such as teleconferencing, tele-surgery, interconnection in new buildings’ project chains, and cultural heritage and museum content communication, are well on their way to integrating immersive technologies. In addition, current events have further enhanced remote connections, highlighting the importance of communication and content transmission for learning, research, and project purposes. For this, immersive interactive applications require novel solutions at all elements of the end-to-end transmission chain. Aspects such as network infrastructures, streaming protocols, or the end-user will need to be optimized to cope with the stringent requirements of AR/VR applications. Furthermore, the methods by which the perception of the user is currently assessed are not enough for truly immersive applications. This calls for novel methods to evaluate the perceived quality or quality of experience (QoE).

In this Special Issue on “Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications”, we invite authors to submit original research articles, reviews, and viewpoint articles related to recent advances at all levels of the applications and technologies of augmented and virtual reality. We are open to papers addressing a broad range of topics, from foundational topics regarding theoretical issues of augmented and virtual reality to novel algorithms, advanced and technological systems for interesting applications, and innovative approaches in edge computing. Topics of interest for this Special Issue include but are not limited to:

Application of augmented and virtual reality to different areas of society, such as health (i.e., virtual reality exposure therapy), industry (Industry 4.0), AR/VR e-learning (according to new global aims), new building/CH management, etc.;
Novel networking systems and protocols to enable interactive immersive applications. This includes optimizations ranging from hardware (i.e., millimeter-wave networks or optical wireless), physical and MAC layer up to the network, transport and application layers (such as over the top protocols);
Significative advances and optimization in 3D modeling pipelines for AR/VR visualization, accessible and inclusive GUI, interactive 3D models;
Quality of experience management of immersive media applications.

Dr. Maria Torres Vega
Prof. Dr. Michele Russo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

augmented reality
virtual reality
immersive media delivery
quality of experience

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

17 pages, 4068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CoR-SketchAR: Cooperative Sketch-Based Real-Time Augmented Reality Authoring Tool for Crowd Simulation

by Gahyeon Kim and Mankyu Sung

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(15), 7416; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12157416 - 23 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1486

Abstract

In this study, we propose CoR-SketchAR, an augmented reality (AR) environment authoring tool that uses dry-erase markers for real-time collaboration among users. The most important requirement for multi-user collaboration in an AR environment is that the 3D virtual object must be placed at a specific location and can be easily changed by multiple users. Because marker-based registration techniques, which are widely used for matching virtual objects with real ones, require a marker for each object, and creating a crowd simulation environment with objects of various shapes and sizes requires the use of a large number of markers, which is time consuming and expensive. CoR-SketchAR, instead, creates an urban AR environment by drawing sketches with easily altered dry-erase marker. Then, system recognizes the shapes and colors of the sketches automatically. Those recognized shapes and colors provide the exact positions for overlaying the 3D virtual objects, which are the environment factors, on the real environment in augmented reality manner. We can even specify the path the crowd are moving along with a simple sketch stroke. We apply the computer vision technique to recognize the colors and shapes of sketches. By altering the size, shape and color sketches, the system is able to create a wide variety of dynamic urban environments. To validate the proposed techniques, we built two stand-alone software systems to check the usability of the proposed system (a 2D screen-based environmental authoring tool and a sketch-based environmental authoring tool) and conducted experiments in which two users collaborated with each other to create an environment with a specific authoring tool and then report surveys. In the experiments, users collaborated in pairs to create environmental elements, such as highways, buildings, trees, and the starting and goal positions of crowds. After recognizing them, the system then automatically creates a 3D environment, and crowds are animated accordingly. Based on a user survey, we observed that participants who used sketch-based environmental authoring tools were more active and accessible than those who used 2D screen-based authoring tools. The results of the study show that CoR-SketchAR can be further used to create a dynamical crowd simulation on a large scale using beam projectors or portable devices by simply adding sketches based on different scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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21 pages, 8250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A VR Truck Docking Simulator Platform for Developing Personalized Driver Assistance

by Pedro Ribeiro, André Frank Krause, Phillipp Meesters, Karel Kural, Jason van Kolfschoten, Marc-André Büchner, Jens Ohlmann, Christian Ressel, Jan Benders and Kai Essig

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 8911; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11198911 - 24 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3153

Abstract

Professional truck drivers frequently face the challenging task of manually backwards manoeuvring articulated vehicles towards the loading bay. Logistics companies experience costs due to damage caused by vehicles performing this manoeuvre. However, driver assistance aimed to support drivers in this special scenario has not yet been clearly established. Additionally, to optimally improve the driving experience and the performance of the assisted drivers, the driver assistance must be able to continuously adapt to the needs and preferences of each driver. This paper presents the VISTA-Sim, a platform that uses a virtual reality (VR) simulator to develop and evaluate personalized driver assistance. This paper provides a comprehensive account of the VISTA-Sim, describing its development and main functionalities. The paper reports the usage of VISTA-Sim through the scenario of parking a semi-trailer truck in a loading bay, demonstrating how to learn from driver behaviours. Promising preliminary results indicate that this platform provides means to automatically learn from a driver’s performance. The evolution of this platform can offer ideal conditions for the development of ADAS systems that can automatically and continuously learn from and adapt to an individual driver. Therefore, future ADAS systems can be better accepted and trusted by drivers. Finally, this paper discusses the future directions concerning the improvement of the platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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29 pages, 14790 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact Sound Generation for Audiovisual Interaction with Real-World Movable Objects in Building-Scale Virtual Reality

by Katashi Nagao, Kaho Kumon and Kodai Hattori

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7546; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11167546 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1834

Abstract

In building-scale VR, where the entire interior of a large-scale building is a virtual space that users can walk around in, it is very important to handle movable objects that actually exist in the real world and not in the virtual space. We propose a mechanism to dynamically detect such objects (that are not embedded in the virtual space) in advance, and then generate a sound when one is hit with a virtual stick. Moreover, in a large indoor virtual environment, there may be multiple users at the same time, and their presence may be perceived by hearing, as well as by sight, e.g., by hearing sounds such as footsteps. We, therefore, use a GAN deep learning generation system to generate the impact sound from any object. First, in order to visually display a real-world object in virtual space, its 3D data is generated using an RGB-D camera and saved, along with its position information. At the same time, we take the image of the object and break it down into parts, estimate its material, generate the sound, and associate the sound with that part. When a VR user hits the object virtually (e.g., hits it with a virtual stick), a sound is generated. We demonstrate that users can judge the material from the sound, thus confirming the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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13 pages, 27974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Simulation-Based Virtual Reality as a Mock-Up Tool to Support the Design of First Responders Training

by Filippo Gabriele Pratticò, Federico De Lorenzis, Davide Calandra, Alberto Cannavò and Fabrizio Lamberti

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7527; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11167527 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2293

Abstract

Intervention by First Responders (FRs) is essential in disaster response, and their preparation greatly benefits from continuous updates. However, the design of effective training experiences targeted to FRs can be very demanding from the viewpoint of a Training Provisioner (TP). Virtual Reality (VR) may have a key role to play in enhancing and facilitating this task. In fact, VR technology has already proven to be very helpful in the field of emergency training, as well as its use as a powerful design and mock-up tool in many other contexts. In this work, the application of VR as a mock-up tool supporting TPs in the arrangement and validation of a training experience, either real or virtual, is explored. In particular, a case study is considered concerning the training of an FR for hydro-geological risks. Within this context, the proposed approach is compared against dramaturgy prototyping, a method commonly used for the design of experiential courses. Results indicate that the adoption of a VR-based mock-up tool (VRMT) can provide TPs with good insights on the arrangement of the training and precious indications on how to actually map this information onto real-world exercises. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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16 pages, 2322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mixed, Augmented and Virtual, Reality Applied to the Teaching of Mathematics for Architects

by Julio Cabero-Almenara, Julio Barroso-Osuna and Rosabel Martinez-Roig

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(15), 7125; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11157125 - 01 Aug 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3585

Abstract

This paper examines the possibilities of Mixed Reality, the combination of two emerging technologies—Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality—in university education. For this purpose, an object was elaborated in Mixed Reality that underwent the evaluation of 44 first-year students from the degree in architecture who were enrolled in the subject “Mathematical Foundations for Architecture.” The instrument utilized was based on the TAM model, which analyzes the degree of acceptance of the technology used. The analysis of the responses provided by students supported the 23 hypotheses formulated in this study. It was found that MR significantly influences the perceived usefulness and ease of use. The results imply that MR utilization has positive effects on the mathematical teaching-learning processes in architecture from the students’ perception of their mastery of technology. It becomes necessary to offer support to those university teachers who promote the use of active MR-based methodologies in classrooms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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27 pages, 10354 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Human–Computer Interaction Based on Scan-to-BIM Models, Digital Photogrammetry, Visual Programming Language and eXtended Reality (XR)

by Fabrizio Banfi and Mattia Previtali

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(13), 6109; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11136109 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3274

Abstract

In recent years, the advent of the latest-generation technologies and methods have made it possible to survey, digitise and represent complex scenarios such as archaeological sites and historic buildings. Thanks to computer languages based on Visual Programming Language (VPL) and advanced real-time 3D creation platform, this study shows the results obtained in eXtended Reality (XR) oriented to archaeological sites and heritage buildings. In particular, the scan-to-BIM process, digital photogrammetry (terrestrial and aerial) were oriented towards a digitisation process able to tell and share tangible and intangible values through the latest generation techniques, methods and devices. The paradigm of the geometric complexity of the built heritage and new levels of interactivity between users and digital worlds were investigated and developed to favour the transmissibility of information at different levels of virtual experience and digital sharing with the aim to archive, tell and implement historical and cultural baggage that over the years risks being lost and not told to future generations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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12 pages, 2522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Mixed Reality Solution Based on Learning Environment for Sutures in Minor Surgery

by Ana Rojo, Laura Raya and Alberto Sanchez

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(5), 2335; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11052335 - 06 Mar 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2143

Abstract

Minor Surgery Sutures is a fundamental skill for healthcare professionals. However, in the educational field, the practice of suturing is sometimes limited and reduced, with more theoretical than practical study. In order to facilitate learning, our goal is to develop an immersive and interactive educational tool that complements theoretical study, called Suture MR. This application could enhance suture procedural skills in the fields of nursing and medicine. Applying Mixed Reality techniques, we generate a 3D model of an arm with a full-scale wound. Realistically, the user will simulate the suture movements as part of the learning process. The application has surgical clamps and a needle holder that are virtually visualized in the user’s hands, allowing gestures and movements faithful to the real ones. In this article, we want to demonstrate the usability of our environment and the feasibility of using Mixed Reality learning experiences in clinical practical training as a complement to theoretical training. The results of the study reveal a greater perception of learning and the willingness of students to use this methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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23 pages, 12163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tangible VR Book: Exploring the Design Space of Marker-Based Tangible Interfaces for Virtual Reality

by Jorge C. S. Cardoso and Jorge M. Ribeiro

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(4), 1367; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11041367 - 03 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4520

Abstract

Tangible User Interface (TUI) represents a huge potential for Virtual Reality (VR) because tangibles can naturally provide rich haptic cues which are often missing in VR experiences that make use of standard controllers. We are particularly interested in implementing TUIs for smartphone-based VR, given the lower usage barrier and easy deployment. In order to keep the overall system simple and accessible, we have explored object detection through visual markers, using the smartphone’s camera. In order to help VR experience designers, in this work we present a design space for marker-based TUI for VR. We have mapped this design space by developing several marker-based tangible interaction prototypes and through a formative study with professionals with different backgrounds. We then instantiated the design space in a Tangible VR Book which we evaluate with remote user studies inspired by the vignette methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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26 pages, 22105 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MANTRA: An Effective System Based on Augmented Reality and Infrared Thermography for Industrial Maintenance

by Mario Ortega, Eugenio Ivorra, Alejandro Juan, Pablo Venegas, Jorge Martínez and Mariano Alcañiz

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(1), 385; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11010385 - 03 Jan 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3446

Abstract

In recent years, the benefits of both Augmented Reality (AR) technology and infrared thermography (IRT) have been demonstrated in the industrial maintenance sector, allowing maintenance operations to be carried out in a safer, faster, and more efficient manner. However, there still exists no solution that optimally combines both technologies. In this work, we propose a new AR system—MANTRA—with specific application to industrial maintenance. The system can automatically align virtual information and temperature on any 3D object, in real time. This is achieved through the joint use of an RGB-D sensor and an IRT camera, leading to high accuracy and robustness. To achieve this objective, a pose estimation method that combines a deep-learning-based object detection method, YOLOV4, together with the template-based LINEMOD pose estimation method, as well as a model-based 6DOF pose tracking technique, was developed. The MANTRA system is validated both quantitatively and qualitatively through a real use-case, demonstrating the effectiveness of the system compared to traditional methods and those using only AR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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23 pages, 6178 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Personalised Emotion-Based Model for Relaxation in Virtual Reality

by Joris Heyse, Maria Torres Vega, Thomas De Jonge, Femke De Backere and Filip De Turck

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(17), 6124; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app10176124 - 03 Sep 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3186

Abstract

One of the most frequent health problems is stress. It has been linked to negative effects on employee well-being in many occupations, and it is considered responsible for many physical and psychological problems. Traditional in-person relaxation therapy has proven to be effective in reducing stress. However, it has some drawbacks such as high cost, required infrastructure and the need for qualified trainers. Relaxation therapy in Virtual Reality (VR) tries to solve these problems. However, one aspect has received little attention, that is personalised therapy. Indeed, while many studies show the need for patient-tailored relaxation exercises, little existing work focuses on personalised VR content. One reason for this is the complexity of recognising emotions, which is required for emotion-based adaptive VR. In this work, a method for adapting VR content to the emotional state of the user is presented. This model has been applied in a VR relaxation therapy application, which adapts to the user’s emotional state utilising a heuristic optimiser. Simulations have proven the performance and usability of the emotion model. Additionally, this paper explores the impact of the order in which adaptations are performed on the effectiveness of the relaxation experience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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19 pages, 3824 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Multi-Player Computation Offloading for VR Edge-Cloud Computing Systems

by Abdullah Alshahrani, Ibrahim A. Elgendy, Ammar Muthanna, Ahmed Mohammed Alghamdi and Adel Alshamrani

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(16), 5515; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app10165515 - 10 Aug 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4105

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) is considered to be one of the main use cases of the fifth-generation cellular system (5G). In addition, it has been categorized as one of the ultra-low latency applications in which VR applications require an end-to-end latency of 5 ms. However, the limited battery capacity and computing resources of mobile devices restrict the execution of VR applications on these devices. As a result, mobile edge-cloud computing is considered as a new paradigm to mitigate resource limitations of these devices through computation offloading process with low latency. To this end, this paper introduces an efficient multi-player with multi-task computation offloading model with guaranteed performance in network latency and energy consumption for VR applications based on mobile edge-cloud computing. In addition, this model has been formulated as an integer optimization problem whose objective is to minimize the sum cost of the entire system in terms of network latency and energy consumption. Afterwards, a low-complexity algorithm has been designed which provides comprehensive processes for deriving the optimal computation offloading decision in an efficient manner. Furthermore, we provide a prototype and real implementation for the proposed system using OpenAirInterface software. Finally, simulations have been conducted to validate our proposed model and prove that the network latency and energy consumption can be reduced by up to 26.2%, 27.2% and 10.9%, 12.2% in comparison with edge and cloud execution, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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Review

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27 pages, 2452 KiB

Open AccessReview

Benefits and Challenges of Virtual-Reality-Based Industrial Usability Testing and Design Reviews: A Patents Landscape and Literature Review

by Fabio Vinicius de Freitas, Marcus Vinicius Mendes Gomes and Ingrid Winkler

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1755; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12031755 - 08 Feb 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5404

Abstract

With the introduction of new devices, industries are turning to virtual reality to innovate their product development processes. However, before the technology’s possibilities can be fully harnessed, certain constraints must be overcome. This study identifies the benefits and challenges of virtual-reality-based usability testing and design reviews in industry through a patents and articles review. We searched Derwent Innovation, Scopus, and Web of Science and identified 7 patent filings and 20 articles. We discovered an increase in patent filings since 2016 and strong development in the technology space, offering opportunities to enter an area while it is still young. The most frequently researched field is the automotive industry and the most used device is the HTC VIVE head-mounted display, which is frequently paired with motion capture systems and Unity 3D game engines. Virtual reality benefits design reviews and usability testing by providing the visualization of new angles that stimulate novel insights, increasing team engagement, offering more intuitive interactions for non-CAD specialists, saving redesign cost and time, and increasing participants’ safety. The challenges faced by virtual-reality-based prototypes are a lack of realism due to unnatural tactile and visual interactions, latency and registration issues, communication difficulties between teams, and unpleasant symptoms. While these constraints prevent virtual reality from replacing conventional design reviews and usability testing in the near future, it is already a valuable contribution to the industrial product development process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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38 pages, 4235 KiB

Open AccessReview

AR in the Architecture Domain: State of the Art

by Michele Russo

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(15), 6800; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11156800 - 24 Jul 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4731

Abstract

Augmented reality (AR) allows the real and digital worlds to converge and overlap in a new way of observation and understanding. The architectural field can significantly benefit from AR applications, due to their systemic complexity in terms of knowledge and process management. Global interest and many research challenges are focused on this field, thanks to the conjunction of technological and algorithmic developments from one side, and the massive digitization of built data. A significant quantity of research in the AEC and educational fields describes this state of the art. Moreover, it is a very fragmented domain, in which specific advances or case studies are often described without considering the complexity of the whole development process. The article illustrates the entire AR pipeline development in architecture, from the conceptual phase to its application, highlighting each step’s specific aspects. This storytelling aims to provide a general overview to a non-expert, deepening the topic and stimulating a democratization process. The aware and extended use of AR in multiple areas of application can lead a new way forward for environmental understanding, bridging the gap between real and virtual space in an innovative perception of architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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23 pages, 4962 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Application of Augmented Reality in the Automotive Industry: A Systematic Literature Review

by Răzvan Gabriel Boboc, Florin Gîrbacia and Eugen Valentin Butilă

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(12), 4259; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app10124259 - 21 Jun 2020

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 10500

Abstract

Augmented reality (AR) is a fairly new technology enabling human machine interaction by superimposing virtual information on a real environment. Potential applications can be found in many areas of research from recent years. This study presents a systematic review of existing AR systems in the automotive field, synthesizing 55 studies from 2002 to 2019. The main research questions are: where AR technology has been applied within the automotive industry, what is the purpose of its application, what are the general characteristics of these systems, and what are the emphasized benefits and challenges of using AR in this field? The aim of this paper is to provide an insight into the AR applications and technologies in the automotive field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Augmented and Virtual Reality Applications)

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