Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
5.5
3.2
Journals
Energies
Special Issues
Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017
energies-logo
Submit to Energies Review for Energies Propose a Special Issue

Journal Menu

► Journal Menu

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser
share announcement

Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2017) | Viewed by 166058

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Senthilarasu Sundaram

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Computing, Engineering and Digital Technologies, Teesside University, Tees Valley, Middlesbrough TS1 3BX, UK
Interests: new materials for dye-sensitised solar cells (DSSCs); thin-film-based building integrated PV
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Tapas Mallick

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
Interests: renewable energy; concentrating solar photovoltaics; heat transfer, optics and electrical modeling; building integrated photovoltaics; static solar concentrators; integrated renewables (biomass, wind and solar integration); novel materials for solar electricity; solar electricity for sustainable building
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue is focused on very specific issues related to the efficiency of photovoltaic systems, stability of devices, and cost reduction at the module level. However, the Special Issue is not limited to issues related to the above-mentioned, broad categories. It includes the most promising areas of emerging PV areas, such as perovskite solar cells, dye sensitized solar cells, and biomimicking for solar energy conversion. The new generations of solar cells, with their particular applications and specific location studies, are also important in terms of the stability of devices in real or simulated conditions. The modeling aspects of PV materials and systems are also a focus. The following topics of research related articles are also acceptable for this Special Issue:

  • Photovoltaic materials, stability, scaling up engineering and production
  • Thin film solar cell materials and methods
  • Perovskite thin film solar cell materials, methods, stability and cost reduction
  • Third generation solar cell materials, methods and stability.
  • Concentrating photovoltaics
  • Renewable energy system integration
  • Biomimicking for solar energy conversion

Dr. Senthilarasu Sundaram
Prof. Dr. Tapas Mallick
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • photovoltaics systems
  • PV materials and methods
  • perovskite solar cells
  • PV efficiency limiting
  • PV stability
  • PV cost reduction
  • third generation solar cells

Published Papers (26 papers)

Download All Papers
Order results
Result details
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:

Research

4156 KiB  
Article
Comparative Energy Performance Analysis of Six Primary Photovoltaic Technologies in Madrid (Spain)
by Teodoro Adrada Guerra, Julio Amador Guerra, Beatriz Orfao Tabernero and Guillermo De la Cruz García
Energies 2017, 10(6), 772; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10060772 - 01 Jun 2017
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6696
Abstract
There are a wealth of studies on photovoltaic cell technologies, however their performance in different climatic or geographies over an extended period is not completely established. The objective of this paper is to add to this area of study with an analysis of [...] Read more.
There are a wealth of studies on photovoltaic cell technologies, however their performance in different climatic or geographies over an extended period is not completely established. The objective of this paper is to add to this area of study with an analysis of the principle photovoltaic technologies: monocrystalline silicon (mc-Si), polycrystalline silicon (pc-Si), tandem structure of amorphous silicon and microcrystalline silicon (a-Si/µc-Si tandem), cadmium telluride/cadmium sulfide (CdTe/CdS), copper-indium diselenide (CIS) and monocrystalline silicon with double contact back technology (mc-dc-Si), in the climatic conditions particular to the middle latitude urban environment of Madrid (Spain). To carry out this study six photovoltaic subsystems of peak power 1 kWp approximately have been installed for each selected technology on the roof of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería y Diseño Industrial (ETSIDI) of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) in Spain. Each subsystem has an inverter of the same model and power for its connection to the internal electricity network of the university. This paper analyzes the energy performance of the six subsystems, calculating the reference production rates and losses, from February 2013 to December 2015. The result of the study is the extensive capture of data and detailed analysis of real time energy yields and performance ratios of key technologies resulting with patterns in line with those of other regions with comparable climatic conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

1172 KiB  
Article
Photovoltaic Array Fault Detection by Automatic Reconfiguration
by Dong Ji, Cai Zhang, Mingsong Lv, Ye Ma and Nan Guan
Energies 2017, 10(5), 699; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10050699 - 16 May 2017
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6972
Abstract
Photovoltaic (PV) system output electricity is related to PV cells’ conditions, with the PV faults decreasing the efficiency of the PV system and even causing a possible source of fire. In industrial production, PV fault detection is typically laborious manual work. In this [...] Read more.
Photovoltaic (PV) system output electricity is related to PV cells’ conditions, with the PV faults decreasing the efficiency of the PV system and even causing a possible source of fire. In industrial production, PV fault detection is typically laborious manual work. In this paper, we present a method that can automatically detect PV faults. Based on the observation that different faults will have different impacts on a PV system, we propose a method that systematically and iteratively reconfigures the PV array until the faults are located based on the specific current-voltage (I-V) curve of the (sub-)array. Our method can detect several main types of faults including open-circuit faults, mismatch faults, short circuit faults, etc. We evaluate our methods by Matlab/Simulink-based simulation. The results show that the proposed methods can accurately detect and classify the different faults occurring in a PV system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

3112 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Usability and Accuracy of Two-Diode Models for Photovoltaic Modules
by Vincenzo Franzitta, Aldo Orioli and Alessandra Di Gangi
Energies 2017, 10(4), 564; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10040564 - 20 Apr 2017
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4109
Abstract
Many diode-based equivalent circuits for simulating the electrical behaviour of photovoltaic (PV) cells and panels are reported in the scientific literature. Two-diode equivalent circuits, which require more complex procedures to calculate the seven model parameters, are less numerous. The model parameters are generally [...] Read more.
Many diode-based equivalent circuits for simulating the electrical behaviour of photovoltaic (PV) cells and panels are reported in the scientific literature. Two-diode equivalent circuits, which require more complex procedures to calculate the seven model parameters, are less numerous. The model parameters are generally calculated using the data extracted from the datasheets issued by the PV panel manufactures and adopting simplifying hypotheses and numerical solving techniques. A criterion for rating both the usability and accuracy of two-diode models is proposed in this paper with the aim of supporting researchers and designers, working in the area of PV systems, to select and use a model that may be fit for purpose. The criterion adopts a three-level rating scale that considers the ease of finding the data used by the analytical procedure, the simplicity of the mathematical tools needed to perform calculations and the accuracy achieved in calculating the current and power. The analytical procedures, the simplifying hypotheses and the operative steps to calculate the parameters of the most famous two-diode equivalent circuits are exhaustively described in this paper. The accuracy of the models is tested by comparing the characteristics issued by the PV panel manufacturers with the current-voltage (I-V) curves, at constant solar irradiance and/or cell temperature, calculated with the analysed models with. The results of the study show that the two-diode models recently proposed reach accuracies that are comparable with the values derived from the one-diode models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

5399 KiB  
Article
A Glowworm Swarm Optimization-Based Maximum Power Point Tracking for Photovoltaic/Thermal Systems under Non-Uniform Solar Irradiation and Temperature Distribution
by Yi Jin, Wenhui Hou, Guiqiang Li and Xiao Chen
Energies 2017, 10(4), 541; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10040541 - 15 Apr 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5340
Abstract
The output power of a photovoltaic (PV) system depends on the external solar irradiation and its own temperature. In order to obtain more power from the PV system, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is necessary. However, when the PV is partially shaded, [...] Read more.
The output power of a photovoltaic (PV) system depends on the external solar irradiation and its own temperature. In order to obtain more power from the PV system, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is necessary. However, when the PV is partially shaded, there will be multiple peaks in the power-current (P-I) curve. The conventional MPPT methods may be invalid due to falling into the local peak. In addition, in a photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) system, the non-uniform temperature distribution on PV will also occur, which complicates the situation. This paper presents a MPPT method with glowworm swarm optimization (GSO) for PV in a PV/T system under non-uniform solar irradiation and temperature distribution. In order to study the performance of the proposed method, the conventional methods including the perturbation and observe algorithm (P and O), and the fractional open-circuit voltage technique (FOCVT) are compared with it in this paper. Simulation results show that the proposed method can rapidly track the real maximum power point (MPP) under different conditions, such as the gradient temperature distribution, the fast variable solar irradiation and the variable partial shading. The outcome indicates the proposed method has obvious advantages, especially the performance being superior to the conventional methods under the partial shading condition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

12136 KiB  
Article
Comparison of the 60Sn40Pb and 62Sn2Ag36Pb Solders for a PV Ribbon Joint in Photovoltaic Modules Using the Thermal Shock Test
by Min-Soo Kang, Yu-Jae Jeon, Do-Seok Kim and Young-Eui Shin
Energies 2017, 10(4), 529; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10040529 - 13 Apr 2017
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6450
Abstract
In this study, the characteristics of a photovoltaic (PV) ribbon (t = 0.25 mm) joint with 60Sn40Pb and 62Sn2Ag36Pb solders were evaluated using thermal shock tests. The thermal shock tests were performed under three conditions: −40–65 °C, −40–85 °C, and −40–105 °C. [...] Read more.
In this study, the characteristics of a photovoltaic (PV) ribbon (t = 0.25 mm) joint with 60Sn40Pb and 62Sn2Ag36Pb solders were evaluated using thermal shock tests. The thermal shock tests were performed under three conditions: −40–65 °C, −40–85 °C, and −40–105 °C. The results of these tests were analyzed using electroluminescence (EL) and cross-sectional images. Following testing, broken metal fingers (MFs) were confirmed near the solder joint. PV module degradation was attributed to the broken finger ratio (BFR) based on quantitative analysis of the dark rectangular (DR) regions on the EL images. In addition, the activation energy of the broken MFs was calculated from the increasing BFR. Thermal characteristic variations due to the added Ag in the PV ribbon solder joints were evaluated through observation of solder micro-structure changes following thermal shock tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

2864 KiB  
Article
Design and Research of the Movable Hybrid Photovoltaic-Thermal (PVT) System
by Lian Zhang and Zi Jian Chen
Energies 2017, 10(4), 507; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10040507 - 08 Apr 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4726
Abstract
In recent years, with the development of photovoltaic system and photo-thermal system technology, hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) technology has been a breakthrough in many aspects. This paper describes the movable hybrid PVT system from the aspects of appearance structure, energy flow, and control circuit. [...] Read more.
In recent years, with the development of photovoltaic system and photo-thermal system technology, hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) technology has been a breakthrough in many aspects. This paper describes the movable hybrid PVT system from the aspects of appearance structure, energy flow, and control circuit. The system is equipped with rolling wheels and the simulated light sources also can be removed so that the system can be used in the outdoor conditions. The movable system is also suitable for the PVT system and its related applications without any external power supply. This system combines two technologies: photovoltaic power generation and photo-thermal utilization. The first part of the power supply is for the systems own output power supply, and the second part is for generating thermal energy. The two separate parts can be controlled and monitored respectively through the control circuits and the touch screens. The experimental results show that the system can generate 691 kWh electric energy and 3047.8 kWh thermal energy each year under normal working conditions. The efficiency of the proposed movable hybrid PVT system is calculated to be approximately 42.82% using the revised equations that are proposed in this paper. Therefore, the movable hybrid PVT system can meet the daily demands of hot water and electricity power in remote areas or islands and other non-grid areas. It also can be used to conduct experiment tests for the PVT system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

2534 KiB  
Article
Improved Separation and Collection of Charge Carriers in Micro-Pyramidal-Structured Silicon/PEDOT:PSS Hybrid Solar Cells
by Yuuki Sugano, Keisuke Sato, Naoki Fukata and Kenji Hirakuri
Energies 2017, 10(4), 420; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10040420 - 23 Mar 2017
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5418
Abstract
Silicon (Si)/organic polymer hybrid solar cells have great potential for becoming cost-effective and efficient energy-harvesting devices. We report herein on the effects of polymer coverage and the rear electrode on the device performance of Si/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hybrid solar cells with micro-pyramidal structures. These [...] Read more.
Silicon (Si)/organic polymer hybrid solar cells have great potential for becoming cost-effective and efficient energy-harvesting devices. We report herein on the effects of polymer coverage and the rear electrode on the device performance of Si/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hybrid solar cells with micro-pyramidal structures. These hybrid solar cells provided adequate generation of charge carriers owing to the suppression of reflectance to below 13%. Additionally, the separation of the photogenerated charge carriers at the micro-pyramidal-structured Si/PEDOT:PSS interface regions and their collection at the electrodes were dramatically improved by tuning the adhesion areas of the PEDOT:PSS layer and the rear electrode materials, thereby attaining a power conversion efficiency of 8.25%. These findings suggest that it is important to control the PEDOT:PSS coverage and to optimize the rear electrode materials in order to achieve highly efficient separation of the charge carriers and their effective collection in micro-textured hybrid solar cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

3105 KiB  
Article
Sensitivity of the Drift-Diffusion Approach in Estimating the Power Conversion Efficiency of Bulk Heterojunction Polymer Solar Cells
by Amir Hossein Fallahpour, Aldo Di Carlo and Paolo Lugli
Energies 2017, 10(3), 285; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10030285 - 28 Feb 2017
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 7400
Abstract
There are numerous theoretical approaches to estimating the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of organic solar cells (OSCs), ranging from the empirical approach to calculations based on general considerations of thermodynamics. Depending on the level of abstraction and model assumptions, the accuracy of PCE [...] Read more.
There are numerous theoretical approaches to estimating the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of organic solar cells (OSCs), ranging from the empirical approach to calculations based on general considerations of thermodynamics. Depending on the level of abstraction and model assumptions, the accuracy of PCE estimation and complexity of the calculation can change dramatically. In particular, PCE estimation with a drift-diffusion approach (widely investigated in the literature), strongly depends on the assumptions made for the physical models and optoelectrical properties of semiconducting materials. This has led to a huge deviation as well as complications in the analysis of simulated results aiming to understand the factors limiting the performance of OSCs. In this work, we intend to highlight the complex relation between mobility, exciton dynamics, nanoscale dimension, and loss mechanisms in one framework. Our systematic analysis represents key information on the sensitivity of the drift-diffusion approach, to estimate how physical parameters and physical processes bind the PCE of the device under the influence of structure, contact, and material layer properties. The obtained results ultimately led to recommendations for putting effort into certain properties to get the most out of avoidable losses, presented the impact and importance of modification of material properties, and in particular, recommended to what degree the design of new material could improve OSC performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

5788 KiB  
Article
A New Model for Estimating the Diffuse Fraction of Solar Irradiance for Photovoltaic System Simulations
by Martin Hofmann and Gunther Seckmeyer
Energies 2017, 10(2), 248; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10020248 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8567
Abstract
We present a new model for the calculation of the diffuse fraction of the global solar irradiance for solar system simulations. The importance of an accurate estimation of the horizontal diffuse irradiance is highlighted by findings that an inaccurately calculated diffuse irradiance can [...] Read more.
We present a new model for the calculation of the diffuse fraction of the global solar irradiance for solar system simulations. The importance of an accurate estimation of the horizontal diffuse irradiance is highlighted by findings that an inaccurately calculated diffuse irradiance can lead to significant over- or underestimations in the annual energy yield of a photovoltaic (PV) system by as much as 8%. Our model utilizes a time series of global irradiance in one-minute resolution and geographical information as input. The model is validated by measurement data of 28 geographically and climatologically diverse locations worldwide with one year of one-minute data each, taken from the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN). We show that on average the mean absolute deviation of the modelled and the measured diffuse irradiance is reduced from about 12% to about 6% compared to three reference models. The maximum deviation is less than 20%. In more than 80% of the test cases, the deviation is smaller 10%. The root mean squared error (RMSE) of the calculated diffuse fractions is reduced by about 18%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

9395 KiB  
Article
Voltage-Based Hot-Spot Detection Method for Photovoltaic String Using a Projector
by Yadong Wang, Kazutaka Itako, Tsugutomo Kudoh, Keishin Koh and Qiang Ge
Energies 2017, 10(2), 230; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10020230 - 15 Feb 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4471
Abstract
This paper proposes a voltage-based hot-spot detection method for photovoltaic (PV) string using the projector. Hot-spots form in solar cells at defects causing a high carrier recombination rate, it appears as a high reverse leakage current of p-n junctions when solar cells are [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a voltage-based hot-spot detection method for photovoltaic (PV) string using the projector. Hot-spots form in solar cells at defects causing a high carrier recombination rate, it appears as a high reverse leakage current of p-n junctions when solar cells are partially shadowed. Using this characteristic, authors previously developed a voltage-based hot-spot detection method to quickly identify and characterize the severity of a module hot-spot. However, previous experimental results were shown for just one module. In this paper, experiments are done on plural modules in the string. From the result, this method works effectively for PV string. Correlations among illuminance, load resistance, hot-spot temperature, and risk factor are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

2005 KiB  
Article
A Heuristic Diagnostic Method for a PV System: Triple-Layered Particle Swarm Optimization–Back-Propagation Neural Network
by Zhenghai Liao, Dazheng Wang, Liangliang Tang, Jinli Ren and Zhuming Liu
Energies 2017, 10(2), 226; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10020226 - 15 Feb 2017
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5304
Abstract
This paper proposes a heuristic triple layered particle swarm optimization–back-propagation (PSO-BP) neural network method for improving the convergence and prediction accuracy of the fault diagnosis system of the photovoltaic (PV) array. The parameters, open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current (Isc), [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a heuristic triple layered particle swarm optimization–back-propagation (PSO-BP) neural network method for improving the convergence and prediction accuracy of the fault diagnosis system of the photovoltaic (PV) array. The parameters, open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current (Isc), maximum power (Pm) and voltage at maximum power point (Vm) are extracted from the output curve of the PV array as identification parameters for the fault diagnosis system. This study compares performances of two methods, the back-propagation neural network method, which is widely used, and the heuristic method with MATLAB. In the training phase, the back-propagation method takes about 425 steps to convergence, while the heuristic method needs only 312 steps. In the fault diagnosis phase, the prediction accuracy of the heuristic method is 93.33%, while the back-propagation method scores 86.67%. It is concluded that the heuristic method can not only improve the convergence of the simulation but also significantly improve the prediction accuracy of the fault diagnosis system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

8689 KiB  
Article
Geospatial Analysis of Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System Performance
by Thomas Huld, Magda Moner-Girona and Akos Kriston
Energies 2017, 10(2), 218; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10020218 - 15 Feb 2017
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 6952
Abstract
We present a geographic information system (GIS)-based tool for estimating the performance of photovoltaic (PV) mini-grid system over large geographical areas. The methodology consists of geospatial analysis and mapping of the energy output and reliability of PV mini-grid system. The algorithm uses a [...] Read more.
We present a geographic information system (GIS)-based tool for estimating the performance of photovoltaic (PV) mini-grid system over large geographical areas. The methodology consists of geospatial analysis and mapping of the energy output and reliability of PV mini-grid system. The algorithm uses a combination of hourly solar radiation data from satellites combined with measured data on PV module and battery performance and estimated electricity consumption data. The methods also make it possible to optimize the PV array and battery storage size for a given location. Results are presented for an area covering Africa and most of Southern and Central Asia. We also investigate the effects of using Li-ion batteries instead of the traditional lead-acid batteries. The use of our spatial analysis as decision support tool could help governments, local authorities and non-governmental organizations to investigate the suitability of PV mini-grids for electrification of regions where access to electricity is lacking. In this way it is possible to identify areas where PV mini-grids are most suitable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

7719 KiB  
Article
Interpolating and Estimating Horizontal Diffuse Solar Irradiation to Provide UK-Wide Coverage: Selection of the Best Performing Models
by Diane Palmer, Ian Cole, Tom Betts and Ralph Gottschalg
Energies 2017, 10(2), 181; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10020181 - 05 Feb 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8925
Abstract
Plane-of-array (PoA) irradiation data is a requirement to simulate the energetic performance of photovoltaic devices (PVs). Normally, solar data is only available as global horizontal irradiation, for a limited number of locations, and typically in hourly time resolution. One approach to handling this [...] Read more.
Plane-of-array (PoA) irradiation data is a requirement to simulate the energetic performance of photovoltaic devices (PVs). Normally, solar data is only available as global horizontal irradiation, for a limited number of locations, and typically in hourly time resolution. One approach to handling this restricted data is to enhance it initially by interpolation to the location of interest; next, it must be translated to PoA data by separately considering the diffuse and the beam components. There are many methods of interpolation. This research selects ordinary kriging as the best performing technique by studying mathematical properties, experimentation and leave-one-out-cross validation. Likewise, a number of different translation models has been developed, most of them parameterised for specific measurement setups and locations. The work presented identifies the optimum approach for the UK on a national scale. The global horizontal irradiation will be split into its constituent parts. Divers separation models were tried. The results of each separation algorithm were checked against measured data distributed across the UK. It became apparent that while there is little difference between procedures (14 Wh/m2 mean bias error (MBE), 12 Wh/m2 root mean square error (RMSE)), the Ridley, Boland, Lauret equation (a universal split algorithm) consistently performed well. The combined interpolation/separation RMSE is 86 Wh/m2). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

5693 KiB  
Article
Application of Meta-Heuristic Techniques for Optimal Load Shedding in Islanded Distribution Network with High Penetration of Solar PV Generation
by Mohammad Dreidy, Hazlie Mokhlis and Saad Mekhilef
Energies 2017, 10(2), 150; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10020150 - 24 Jan 2017
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5071
Abstract
Recently, several environmental problems are beginning to affect all aspects of life. For this reason, many governments and international agencies have expressed great interest in using more renewable energy sources (RESs). However, integrating more RESs with distribution networks resulted in several critical problems [...] Read more.
Recently, several environmental problems are beginning to affect all aspects of life. For this reason, many governments and international agencies have expressed great interest in using more renewable energy sources (RESs). However, integrating more RESs with distribution networks resulted in several critical problems vis-à-vis the frequency stability, which might lead to a complete blackout if not properly treated. Therefore, this paper proposed a new Under Frequency Load Shedding (UFLS) scheme for islanding distribution network. This scheme uses three meta-heuristics techniques, binary evolutionary programming (BEP), Binary genetic algorithm (BGA), and Binary particle swarm optimization (BPSO), to determine the optimal combination of loads that needs to be shed from the islanded distribution network. Compared with existing UFLS schemes using fixed priority loads, the proposed scheme has the ability to restore the network frequency without any overshooting. Furthermore, in terms of execution time, the simulation results show that the BEP technique is fast enough to shed the optimal combination of loads compared with BGA and BPSO techniques. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

8087 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Dynamic Characteristic for Solar Arrays in Series and Global Maximum Power Point Tracking Based on Optimal Initial Value Incremental Conductance Strategy under Partially Shaded Conditions
by Jian Zhao, Xuesong Zhou, Youjie Ma and Yiqi Liu
Energies 2017, 10(1), 120; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10010120 - 19 Jan 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4619
Abstract
Partial shading (PS) is an unavoidable condition which significantly reduces the efficiency and stability of a photovoltaic (PV) system. With PS, the system usually exhibits multiple-peak output power characteristics, but single-peak is also possible under special PS conditions. In fact it is shown [...] Read more.
Partial shading (PS) is an unavoidable condition which significantly reduces the efficiency and stability of a photovoltaic (PV) system. With PS, the system usually exhibits multiple-peak output power characteristics, but single-peak is also possible under special PS conditions. In fact it is shown that the partial shading condition (PSC) is the necessary but not sufficient condition for multiple-peak. Based on circuit analysis, this paper shows that the number of peak points can be determined by short-circuit currents and maximum-power point currents of all the arrays in series. Then the principle is established based on which the number of the peak points is to be determined. Furthermore, based on the dynamic characteristic of solar array, this paper establishes the rule for determination of the relative position of the global maximum power point (GMPP). In order to track the GMPP within an appropriate period, a reliable technique and the corresponding computer algorithm are developed for GMPP tracking (GMPPT) control. It exploits a definable nonlinear relation has been found between variable environmental parameters and the output current of solar arrays at every maximum power point, obtained based on the dynamic performance corresponding to PSC. Finally, the proposed method is validated with MATLAB®/Simulink® simulations and actual experiments. It is shown that the GMPPT of a PV generation system is indeed realized efficiently in a realistic environment with partial shading conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

5941 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Primary Constraint Conditions of an Efficient Photovoltaic-Thermoelectric Hybrid System
by Guiqiang Li, Xiao Chen and Yi Jin
Energies 2017, 10(1), 20; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en10010020 - 24 Dec 2016
Cited by 48 | Viewed by 5661
Abstract
Electrical efficiency can be increased by combining photovoltaic (PV) and the thermoelectric (TE) systems. However, a simple and cursory combination is unsuitable because the negative impact of temperature on PV may be greater than its positive impact on TE. This study analyzed the [...] Read more.
Electrical efficiency can be increased by combining photovoltaic (PV) and the thermoelectric (TE) systems. However, a simple and cursory combination is unsuitable because the negative impact of temperature on PV may be greater than its positive impact on TE. This study analyzed the primary constraint conditions based on the hybrid system model consisting of a PV and a TE generator (TEG), which includes TE material with temperature-dependent properties. The influences of the geometric size, solar irradiation and cold side temperature on the hybrid system performance is discussed based on the simulation. Furthermore, the effective range of parameters is demonstrated using the image area method, and the change trend of the area with different parameters illustrates the constraint conditions of an efficient PV-TE hybrid system. These results provide a benchmark for efficient PV-TEG design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

3740 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Usability and Accuracy of the Simplified One-Diode Models for Photovoltaic Modules
by Vincenzo Franzitta, Aldo Orioli and Alessandra Di Gangi
Energies 2016, 9(12), 1019; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9121019 - 06 Dec 2016
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 4802
Abstract
Models for photovoltaic (PV) cells and panels, based on the diode equivalent circuit, have been widely used because they are effective tools for system design. Many authors have presented simplified one-diode models whose three or four parameters are calculated using the data extracted [...] Read more.
Models for photovoltaic (PV) cells and panels, based on the diode equivalent circuit, have been widely used because they are effective tools for system design. Many authors have presented simplified one-diode models whose three or four parameters are calculated using the data extracted from the datasheets issued by PV panel manufactures and adopting some simplifying hypotheses and numerical solving techniques. Sometimes it may be difficult to make a choice among so many models. To help researchers and designers working in the area of photovoltaic systems in selecting the model that is fit for purpose, a criterion for rating both the usability and accuracy of simplified one-diode models is proposed in this paper. The paper minutely describes the adopted hypotheses, analytical procedures and operative steps to calculate the parameters of the most famous simplified one-diode equivalent circuits. To test the achievable accuracy of the models, a comparison between the characteristics of some commercial PV modules issued by PV panel manufacturers and the calculated current-voltage (I-V) curves, at constant solar irradiance and/or cell temperature, is carried out. The study shows that, even if different usability ratings and accuracies are observed, the simplified one-diode models can be considered very effective tools. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

7661 KiB  
Article
Global Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) of a Photovoltaic Module Array Constructed through Improved Teaching-Learning-Based Optimization
by Kuei-Hsiang Chao and Meng-Cheng Wu
Energies 2016, 9(12), 986; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9120986 - 25 Nov 2016
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5434
Abstract
The present study proposes a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) method in which improved teaching-learning-based optimization (I-TLBO) is applied to perform global MPPT of photovoltaic (PV) module arrays under dissimilar shading situations to ensure the maximum power output of the module arrays. The [...] Read more.
The present study proposes a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) method in which improved teaching-learning-based optimization (I-TLBO) is applied to perform global MPPT of photovoltaic (PV) module arrays under dissimilar shading situations to ensure the maximum power output of the module arrays. The proposed I-TLBO enables the automatic adjustment of teaching factors according to the self-learning ability of students. Incorporating smart-tracking and self-study strategies can effectively improve the tracking response speed and steady-state tracking performance. To evaluate the feasibility of the proposed I-TLBO, a HIP-2717 PV module array from Sanyo Electric was employed to compose various arrays with different serial and parallel configurations. The arrays were operated under different shading conditions to test the MPPT with double, triple, or quadruple peaks of power-voltage characteristic curves. Boost converters were employed with TMS320F2808 digital signal processors to test the proposed MPPT method. Empirical results confirm that the proposed method exhibits more favorable dynamic and static-state response tracking performance compared with that of conventional TLBO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

1274 KiB  
Article
Aluminum–Titanium Alloy Back Contact Reducing Production Cost of Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells
by Hsin-Yu Wu, Chia-Hsun Hsu, Shui-Yang Lien and Yeu-Long Jiang
Energies 2016, 9(11), 975; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9110975 - 22 Nov 2016
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5229
Abstract
In this study, metal films are fabricated by using an in-line reactive direct current magnetron sputtering system. The aluminum–titanium (AlTi) back contacts are prepared by changing the pressure from 10 mTorr to 25 mTorr. The optical, electrical and structural properties of the metal [...] Read more.
In this study, metal films are fabricated by using an in-line reactive direct current magnetron sputtering system. The aluminum–titanium (AlTi) back contacts are prepared by changing the pressure from 10 mTorr to 25 mTorr. The optical, electrical and structural properties of the metal back contacts are investigated. The solar cells with the AlTi had lower contact resistance than those with the silver (Ag) back contact, resulting in a higher fill factor. The AlTi contact can achieve a solar cell conversion efficiency as high as that obtained from the Ag contact. These findings encourage the potential adoption of AlTi films as an alternative back contact to silver for silicon thin-film solar cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

6850 KiB  
Article
Effects of Power Tracking Algorithms on Lifetime of Power Electronic Devices Used in Solar Systems
by Canras Batunlu, Mohamad Alrweq and Alhussein Albarbar
Energies 2016, 9(11), 884; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9110884 - 29 Oct 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5686
Abstract
In photovoltaic solar energy systems, power management algorithms (PMAs), usually called maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms, are widely used for extracting maximum available power at every point in time. However, tracking the maximum power has negative effects on the availability of solar [...] Read more.
In photovoltaic solar energy systems, power management algorithms (PMAs), usually called maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms, are widely used for extracting maximum available power at every point in time. However, tracking the maximum power has negative effects on the availability of solar energy systems. This is due, mainly, to the created disturbances and thermal stresses on the associated power electronic converters (PECs). This work investigates the effects of PMA on the lifetime consumption, thermal stresses and failures on DC-DC converters used in solar systems. Firstly theoretical analysis and modelling of photovoltaic solar systems including converter’s electro thermal characteristics were developed. Subsequently, experiments on photovoltaic solar systems were carried out using two different PMAs, namely, perturb and observe (P&O) and incremental conductance (IC). Real-time data was collected, under different operating conditions, including thermal behavior using thermal imaging camera and dSPACE. Converters’ thermal cycling was found to be approximately 3 °C higher with the IC algorithm. The steady state temperature was 52.7 °C, for the IC while it was 42.6 °C for P&O. Although IC algorithm offers more accurate power management tool, it causes more severe thermal stresses which, in this study, has led to approximately 1.4 times greater life consumption compared to P&O. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

1307 KiB  
Article
New Interval-Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy Behavioral MADM Method and Its Application in the Selection of Photovoltaic Cells
by Xiaolu Zhang
Energies 2016, 9(10), 835; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9100835 - 20 Oct 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4039
Abstract
As one of the emerging renewable resources, the use of photovoltaic cells has become a promise for offering clean and plentiful energy. The selection of a best photovoltaic cell for a promoter plays a significant role in aspect of maximizing income, minimizing costs [...] Read more.
As one of the emerging renewable resources, the use of photovoltaic cells has become a promise for offering clean and plentiful energy. The selection of a best photovoltaic cell for a promoter plays a significant role in aspect of maximizing income, minimizing costs and conferring high maturity and reliability, which is a typical multiple attribute decision making (MADM) problem. Although many prominent MADM techniques have been developed, most of them are usually to select the optimal alternative under the hypothesis that the decision maker or expert is completely rational and the decision data are represented by crisp values. However, in the selecting processes of photovoltaic cells the decision maker is usually bounded rational and the ratings of alternatives are usually imprecise and vague. To address these kinds of complex and common issues, in this paper we develop a new interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy behavioral MADM method. We employ interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy numbers (IVIFNs) to express the imprecise ratings of alternatives; and we construct LINMAP-based nonlinear programming models to identify the reference points under IVIFNs contexts, which avoid the subjective randomness of selecting the reference points. Finally we develop a prospect theory-based ranking method to identify the optimal alternative, which takes fully into account the decision maker’s behavioral characteristics such as reference dependence, diminishing sensitivity and loss aversion in the decision making process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

4775 KiB  
Article
Energy Efficiency Enhancement of Photovoltaics by Phase Change Materials through Thermal Energy Recovery
by Ahmad Hasan, Hamza Alnoman and Ali Hasan Shah
Energies 2016, 9(10), 782; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9100782 - 28 Sep 2016
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 6736
Abstract
Photovoltaic (PV) panels convert a certain amount of incident solar radiation into electricity, while the rest is converted to heat, leading to a temperature rise in the PV. This elevated temperature deteriorates the power output and induces structural degradation, resulting in reduced PV [...] Read more.
Photovoltaic (PV) panels convert a certain amount of incident solar radiation into electricity, while the rest is converted to heat, leading to a temperature rise in the PV. This elevated temperature deteriorates the power output and induces structural degradation, resulting in reduced PV lifespan. One potential solution entails PV thermal management employing active and passive means. The traditional passive means are found to be largely ineffective, while active means are considered to be energy intensive. A passive thermal management system using phase change materials (PCMs) can effectively limit PV temperature rises. The PCM-based approach however is cost inefficient unless the stored thermal energy is recovered effectively. The current article investigates a way to utilize the thermal energy stored in the PCM behind the PV for domestic water heating applications. The system is evaluated in the winter conditions of UAE to deliver heat during water heating demand periods. The proposed system achieved a ~1.3% increase in PV electrical conversion efficiency, along with the recovery of ~41% of the thermal energy compared to the incident solar radiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

2775 KiB  
Article
Characterization and Monitoring of a Self-Constructible Photovoltaic-Based Refrigerator
by Claudio Del Pero, Federico M. Butera, Luigi Piegari, Marco Faifer, Maddalena Buffoli and Paolo Monzani
Energies 2016, 9(9), 749; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9090749 - 15 Sep 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4741
Abstract
At present, in the developing countries, the power grids do not reach every small town and, even when they do, they are not reliable. For this reason, preservation of food and medicines is a sensitive issue for a large number of people. This [...] Read more.
At present, in the developing countries, the power grids do not reach every small town and, even when they do, they are not reliable. For this reason, preservation of food and medicines is a sensitive issue for a large number of people. This work introduces the characterization of a new, self-constructible refrigerator, powered by photovoltaic (PV) energy, suitable for the preservation of food in rural villages, with a specific focus on Africa’s tropical-equatorial belt. A thermally-insulated envelope, equipped with thermal energy storage, has been designed to be built on-site, by using local materials, and assembled with technical components (direct current (DC) compressor, heat exchangers, photovoltaic module). The monitoring activity presented in this work was carried out on a first prototype of the system and enabled the validation of numerical simulations, aimed at assessing its appropriate operability under laboratory conditions. In particular, the work demonstrates that the basic module of the refrigerator, with a net capacity of 250 L and an ice storage of 12.5 kg, is able to maintain an internal temperature below 10 °C also in critical boundary conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

3714 KiB  
Article
Design and Optimization of Thermophotovoltaic System Cavity with Mirrors
by Tian Zhou, Zhiqiang Sun, Saiwei Li, Huawei Liu and Danqing Yi
Energies 2016, 9(9), 722; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9090722 - 07 Sep 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5170
Abstract
Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems can convert radiant energy into electrical power. Here we explore the design of the TPV system cavity, which houses the emitter and the photovoltaic (PV) cells. Mirrors are utilized in the cavity to modify the spatial and spectral distribution within. [...] Read more.
Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems can convert radiant energy into electrical power. Here we explore the design of the TPV system cavity, which houses the emitter and the photovoltaic (PV) cells. Mirrors are utilized in the cavity to modify the spatial and spectral distribution within. After discussing the basic concentric tubular design, two novel cavity configurations are put forward and parametrically studied. The investigated variables include the shape, number, and placement of the mirrors. The optimization objectives are the optimized efficiency and the extended range of application of the TPV system. Through numerical simulations, the relationship between the design parameters and the objectives are revealed. The results show that careful design of the cavity configuration can markedly enhance the performance of the TPV system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

6266 KiB  
Article
Land Suitability Analysis for Solar Farms Exploitation Using GIS and Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP)—A Case Study of Iran
by Ehsan Noorollahi, Dawud Fadai, Mohsen Akbarpour Shirazi and Seyed Hassan Ghodsipour
Energies 2016, 9(8), 643; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9080643 - 19 Aug 2016
Cited by 166 | Viewed by 17068
Abstract
Considering the geographical location and climatic conditions of Iran, solar energy can provide a considerable portion of the energy demand for the country. This study develops a two-step framework. In the first step, the map of unsuitable regions is extracted based on the [...] Read more.
Considering the geographical location and climatic conditions of Iran, solar energy can provide a considerable portion of the energy demand for the country. This study develops a two-step framework. In the first step, the map of unsuitable regions is extracted based on the defined constraints. In the next step, in order to identify the suitability of different regions, 11 defined criteria, including solar radiation, average annual temperatures, distance from power transmission lines, distance from major roads, distance from residential area, elevation, slope, land use, average annual cloudy days, average annual humidity and average annual dusty days, are identified. The relative weights of defined criteria and sub-criteria are also determined applying fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP) technique. Next, by overlaying these criteria layers, the final map of prioritization of different regions of Iran for exploiting solar photovoltaic (PV) plants is developed. Based on Iran’s political divisions, investigation and analysis of the results have been presented for a total of 1057 districts of the country, where each district stands in one of the five defined classes of excellent, good, fair, low, and poor level. The obtained data indicate that 14.7% (237,920 km2), 17.2% (278,270 km2), 19.2% (311,767 km2), 11.3% (183,057 km2), 1.8% (30,549 km2) and 35.8% (580,264 km2) of Iran’s area are positioned as excellent, good, fair, low, poor and unsuitable areas, respectively. Moreover, Kerman, Yazd, Fars, Sisitan and Baluchestan, Southern Khorasan and Isfahan are included in the regions as the most excellent suitable provinces for exploiting solar PV plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

5555 KiB  
Article
A Concentrator Photovoltaic System Based on a Combination of Prism-Compound Parabolic Concentrators
by Ngoc Hai Vu and Seoyong Shin
Energies 2016, 9(8), 645; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en9080645 - 16 Aug 2016
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8980
Abstract
We present a cost-effective concentrating photovoltaic system composed of a prism and a compound parabolic concentrator (P-CPC). In this approach, the primary collector consists of a prism, a solid compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), and a slab waveguide. The prism, which is placed on [...] Read more.
We present a cost-effective concentrating photovoltaic system composed of a prism and a compound parabolic concentrator (P-CPC). In this approach, the primary collector consists of a prism, a solid compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), and a slab waveguide. The prism, which is placed on the input aperture of CPC, directs the incoming sunlight beam to be parallel with the main axes of parabolic rims of CPC. Then, the sunlight is reflected at the parabolic rims and concentrated at the focal point of these parabolas. A slab waveguide is coupled at the output aperture of the CPC to collect focused sunlight beams and to guide them to the solar cell. The optical system was modeled and simulated with commercial ray tracing software (LightTools™). Simulation results show that the optical efficiency of a P-CPC can achieve up to 89%. when the concentration ratio of the P-CPC is fixed at 50. We also determine an optimal geometric structure of P-CPC based on simulation. Because of the simplicity of the P-CPC structure, a lower-cost mass production process is possible. A simulation based on optimal structure of P-CPC was performed and the results also shown that P-CPC has high angular tolerance for input sunlight. The high tolerance of the input angle of sunlight allows P-CPC solar concentrator utilize a single sun tracking system instead of a highly precise dual suntracking system as cost effective solution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Photovoltaics Trilemma: Efficiency, Stability and Cost Reduction 2017)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying articles 1-26
Back to TopTop