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Geosciences
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Rockfall Hazard
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Rockfall Hazard

A special issue of Geosciences (ISSN 2076-3263). This special issue belongs to the section "Natural Hazards".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2020) | Viewed by 30719

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Anna Maria Ferrero

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Guest Editor
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Turin, 10124 Torino, Italy
Interests: rock mass characterization; slope stability; rockfall hazard
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Maria Migliazza

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Structural Engineering, Construction and Soil Mechanics, Polytechnic University of Turin, 10129 Torino, Italy
Interests: rockfall hazard; rock and rock mass characterization; no-contact survey technique
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Sabrina Bonetto

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Earth Sciences Department, University of Torino, Via Valperga Caluso 35, 10125 Torino, Italy
Interests: applied geology; engineering geology; rock mechanics; rock mass classification
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Rockfall is one of the major hazard phenomena in mountainous and hill environments due to its wide diffusion, its high motion speed, its unpredictability, and consequently, the difficulty of identifying signs of detaching the blocks.

Studies related to the state of fracturing, lithotype, structural conditions, and alteration of the rock mass are of utter of importance for the study of rock fall susceptibility and for the design of countermeasures for the mitigation of rockfall hazard.

However, the limitation of databases related to previous phenomena often makes it impossible to carry out statistical analyses of historical data and requires alternative approaches for estimating the so-called characteristic block.

The development of innovative measurement methods aimed at a more effective prediction of the detachment of blocks could lead to a better definition of the characteristic block dimensions. Moreover, these methods could be helpful in developing new monitoring systems.

This Special Issue is aimed at collecting all research developments related to rockfall phenomena combining multidisciplinary approaches coming from geology, geomorphology, geomechanics, and numerical modeling in order to develop innovative monitoring techniques and to provide a comprehensive update of the state of the art in this field.

Prof. Dr. Anna Maria Ferrero
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Maria Migliazza
Prof. Dr. Sabrina Maria Rita Bonetto
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Geosciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • rockfall hazard
  • characteristic rock block
  • rockfall monitoring
  • rockfall hazard mitigation
  • early warning system
  • rockfall protection structures

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 8656 KiB  
Article
Reclassification of Microseismic Events through Hypocenter Location: Case Study on an Unstable Rock Face in Northern Italy
by Zhiyong Zhang, Diego Arosio, Azadeh Hojat and Luigi Zanzi
Geosciences 2021, 11(1), 37; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences11010037 - 15 Jan 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2325
Abstract
Passive seismic methods are increasingly used in monitoring unstable rock slopes that are likely to cause rockfalls. Event classification is a basic step in microseismic monitoring. However, the classification of events generated by the propagation of fractures and rockfalls is still uncertain due [...] Read more.
Passive seismic methods are increasingly used in monitoring unstable rock slopes that are likely to cause rockfalls. Event classification is a basic step in microseismic monitoring. However, the classification of events generated by the propagation of fractures and rockfalls is still uncertain due to their similar features in the time and frequency domains. Hypocenter localization might be a powerful tool to distinguish events generated by fracture propagation from those caused by rockfalls. In this study, a classification procedure based on hypocenter location was validated using a selected subset of high-quality data recorded by a five-geophone network installed on a steep rock slope in Northern Italy. Considering the complexity and heterogeneity of the rock mass, a 3D velocity model that was derived from a tomographic experiment was used. We performed the localization using the equal differential time method. The location results fairly fit our expectations on suspected rockfall events because most signals were located near the rock face. However, only 4 out of 20 suspected fracture events were unquestionably confirmed as fractures being located inside the rock mass and far enough from the rock face. Further improvements in location accuracy are still necessary to distinguish suspected fracture events located close to the rock face from rockfalls. This study demonstrates that hypocenter location is a promising method to improve the final classification of microseismic events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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20 pages, 6380 KiB  
Article
Rock Mass Characterization of Karstified Marbles and Evaluation of Rockfall Potential Based on Traditional and SfM-Based Methods; Case Study of Nestos, Greece
by George Papathanassiou, Adrián Riquelme, Theofilos Tzevelekis and Evaggelos Evaggelou
Geosciences 2020, 10(10), 389; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences10100389 - 28 Sep 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2967
Abstract
Rockfall consists one of the most harmful geological phenomena for the man-made environment. In order to evaluate the rockfall hazard, a variety of engineering geological studies should be realized, starting from conducting a detailed field survey and ending with simulating the trajectory of [...] Read more.
Rockfall consists one of the most harmful geological phenomena for the man-made environment. In order to evaluate the rockfall hazard, a variety of engineering geological studies should be realized, starting from conducting a detailed field survey and ending with simulating the trajectory of likely to fail blocks in order to evaluate the kinetic energy and the runout distance. The last decade, new technologies, i.e., remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) are frequently used in order to obtain and analyze the characteristics of the rock mass based on a semi-automatic or manual approach. Aiming to evaluate the rockfall hazard in the area of Nestos, Greece, we applied both traditional and structure from motion (SfM)-oriented approaches and compared the results. As an outcome, it was shown that the semi-automated approaches can accurately detect the discontinuities and define their orientation, and thus can be used in inaccessible areas. Considering the rockfall risk, it was shown that the railway line in the study area is threaten by a rockfall and consequently the construction of a rockfall netting mesh or a rock shed is recommended. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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23 pages, 6573 KiB  
Article
Tomographic Experiments for Defining the 3D Velocity Model of an Unstable Rock Slope to Support Microseismic Event Interpretation
by Zhiyong Zhang, Diego Arosio, Azadeh Hojat and Luigi Zanzi
Geosciences 2020, 10(9), 327; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences10090327 - 19 Aug 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2263
Abstract
To monitor the stability of a mountain slope in northern Italy, microseismic monitoring technique has been used since 2013. Locating microseismic events is a basic step of this technique. We performed a seismic tomographic survey on the mountain surface above the rock face [...] Read more.
To monitor the stability of a mountain slope in northern Italy, microseismic monitoring technique has been used since 2013. Locating microseismic events is a basic step of this technique. We performed a seismic tomographic survey on the mountain surface above the rock face to obtain a reliable velocity distribution in the rock mass for the localization procedure. Seismic travel-time inversion showed high heterogeneity of the rock mass with strong contrast in velocity distribution. Low velocities were found at shallow depth on the top of the rock cliff and intermediate velocities were observed in the most critical area of the rock face corresponding to a partially detached pillar. Using the 3D velocity model obtained from inversion, localization tests were performed based on the Equal Differential Time (EDT) localization method. The results showed hypocenter misfits to be around 15 m for the five geophones of the microseismic network and the error was significantly decreased compared to the results produced by a constant velocity model. Although the localization errors are relatively large, the accuracy is sufficient to distinguish microseismic events occurring in the most critical zone of the monitored rock mass from microseismic events generated far away. Thus, the 3D velocity model will be used in future studies to improve the classification of the recorded events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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19 pages, 16030 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Fragmentation of Rock Blocks from Real-Scale Tests
by Roger Ruiz-Carulla, Jordi Corominas, Josep A. Gili, Gerard Matas, Nieves Lantada, Jose Moya, Albert Prades, M. A. Núñez-Andrés, Felipe Buill and Carol Puig
Geosciences 2020, 10(8), 308; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences10080308 - 11 Aug 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3347
Abstract
Real-scale fragmentation tests provide high quality data in order to study the fragmentation pattern of rock blocks. In the tests carried out, the initial rock mass, in terms of both volume and shape, was reconstructed by means of 3D photogrammetry. The fragments size [...] Read more.
Real-scale fragmentation tests provide high quality data in order to study the fragmentation pattern of rock blocks. In the tests carried out, the initial rock mass, in terms of both volume and shape, was reconstructed by means of 3D photogrammetry. The fragments size distribution of the bocks tested was measured by hand using a tape. The drop tests were performed in four different sites, releasing a total of 124 blocks and measuring 2907 fragments. The obtained fragment size distributions may be well fitted using power laws. The survival rate (Sr), which is the proportion of remaining block shows a wide range of values. Observing the fragment distribution, two parameters are needed to characterize the fragmentation: the number of fragments produced and Sr. The intensity of the fragmentation is expressed by the exponent of the fitted power laws. Although the results are highly variable and show a stochastic behavior of the fragmentation, we have identified different patterns that reflect some local test conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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16 pages, 4028 KiB  
Article
Eurocode 7 and Rock Engineering Design: The Case of Rockfall Protection Barriers
by Federico Vagnon, Sabrina Bonetto, Anna Maria Ferrero, John Paul Harrison and Gessica Umili
Geosciences 2020, 10(8), 305; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences10080305 - 08 Aug 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3081
Abstract
The Eurocode 7 or EC7 is the Reference Design Code (RDC) for geotechnical design including rock engineering design within the European Union (EU). Moreover, its principles have also been adopted by several other countries, becoming a key design standard for geotechnical engineering worldwide. [...] Read more.
The Eurocode 7 or EC7 is the Reference Design Code (RDC) for geotechnical design including rock engineering design within the European Union (EU). Moreover, its principles have also been adopted by several other countries, becoming a key design standard for geotechnical engineering worldwide. It is founded on limit state design (LSD) concepts, and the reliability of design is provided mainly by a semi-probabilistic method based on partial factors. The use of partial factors is currently an advantage, mainly for the simplicity in its applicability, and a limitation, especially concerning geotechnical designs. In fact, the application of partial factors to geotechnical design has proven to be difficult. In this paper, the authors focus on the way to apply EC7 principles to rock engineering design by analyzing the design of rockfall protection structures as an example. A real case of slope subjected to rockfall is reported to outline the peculiarity connected to rock engineering. The main findings are related to the complementarity of the reliability-based design (RBD) approach within EC7 principles and the possibility of overcoming the limitations of a partial factor approach to this type of engineering problem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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25 pages, 3636 KiB  
Article
Reliability-Based Design of Protection Net Fences: Influence of Rockfall Uncertainties through a Statistical Analysis
by Maddalena Marchelli, Valerio De Biagi and Daniele Peila
Geosciences 2020, 10(8), 280; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences10080280 - 22 Jul 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2659
Abstract
Net fences are among the most widespread passive protective measures to mitigate the risk from rockfall events. Despite the current design approach being based on partial safety factors, a more efficient time-dependent reliability approach has been recently introduced by the authors. This method [...] Read more.
Net fences are among the most widespread passive protective measures to mitigate the risk from rockfall events. Despite the current design approach being based on partial safety factors, a more efficient time-dependent reliability approach has been recently introduced by the authors. This method is influenced by various parameters related to the geometry and the kinematics of the block, i.e., the uncertainty related to the distribution of the size of the impacting block, its occurrence probability, and the shape of the right-tail of the distributions of its velocity and trajectory height at the location of the net fence. Furthermore, the block size distribution of the deposit greatly affects the results. The present work focuses on the possible range of such parameters to encompass the great majority of real events. The obtained results are compared with the current design approaches based on fixed partial safety factors. It emerges that the choice of the characteristic mass of the block and the failure probability greatly influence the results. Moreover, if a set of partial safety factors is assigned to different sites, an intrinsic variability in the failure probability has to be accepted. Suggestions for an accurate procedure and future developments are provided. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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21 pages, 5888 KiB  
Article
In Situ Block Size Distribution Aimed at the Choice of the Design Block for Rockfall Barriers Design: A Case Study along Gardesana Road
by Gessica Umili, Sabrina Maria Rita Bonetto, Pietro Mosca, Federico Vagnon and Anna Maria Ferrero
Geosciences 2020, 10(6), 223; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences10060223 - 07 Jun 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2976
Abstract
When studying rockfall phenomena, a single value of the block volume is not sufficient to take into account the natural variability of the geometrical features (orientation, spacing, persistence) of the discontinuity sets. Different approaches for obtaining cumulative distributions of potentially detachable block volumes [...] Read more.
When studying rockfall phenomena, a single value of the block volume is not sufficient to take into account the natural variability of the geometrical features (orientation, spacing, persistence) of the discontinuity sets. Different approaches for obtaining cumulative distributions of potentially detachable block volumes are compared. A highly fractured rock mass outcropping along the western Lake Garda (Italy), consisting of prevailing limestone and interbedded marls, is studied in detail from geological and geostructural points of view. Then, a representative rock face has been selected and analyzed with traditional and non-contact survey methods to identify the main discontinuity sets and to collect spacing samples. Based on these data, in situ block size distributions for different combinations of sets are built following statistically-based approaches, without the use of a Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) generator. The validation of the obtained distributions is attempted based on the detached block surveyed at the foot of the slope. However, in this particular case study, the detached blocks cover only a minimal volume range compared to both theoretical values and visible rockfall scars. The fallen rock blocks have a marginal role in design block determination, since their volume depends on geological discontinuities (bedding and fractures) and could be affected by other processes after the detachment (e.g., fragmentation). The procedure here described should be standard practice in the study of rockfall events, and it should be uniform in European standards such as Eurocodes. Future developments should involve the scientific community for setting the percentiles of the probability distribution to be considered for block design definition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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20 pages, 4980 KiB  
Article
Rockfall Hazard Assessment in Volcanic Regions Based on ISVS and IRVS Geomechanical Indices
by Luis I. González de Vallejo, Luis E. Hernández-Gutiérrez, Ana Miranda and Mercedes Ferrer
Geosciences 2020, 10(6), 220; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences10060220 - 06 Jun 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3635
Abstract
In volcanic regions, rockfalls represent a major hazard strongly conditioned by the geomechanical behaviour of volcanic materials, the geomorphological characteristics of the relief and the climatic conditions. Volcanic rocks possess very different properties to those of other lithological groups, presenting highly heterogeneous geomechanical [...] Read more.
In volcanic regions, rockfalls represent a major hazard strongly conditioned by the geomechanical behaviour of volcanic materials, the geomorphological characteristics of the relief and the climatic conditions. Volcanic rocks possess very different properties to those of other lithological groups, presenting highly heterogeneous geomechanical behaviours. Nevertheless, they have received little research attention in the field of geological and geotechnical engineering. To date, the application of geomechanical classifications to characterise and estimate volcanic slope stability has not yielded reliable results, indicating the need to establish specific criteria for these rocks. Consequently, we developed indices to estimate rockfall susceptibility, hazard and risk in volcanic slopes. The index of susceptibility for volcanic slopes (ISVS) is designed to estimate slope susceptibility to instability, which is related to the level of hazard, while the index of risk for volcanic slopes (IRVS) is designed to estimate the level of risk as a function of the potential damage or economic loss caused as a result of rockfalls on slopes. Both indices were developed in order to provide an easily applied procedure that facilitates the adoption of short-term preventive measures against rockfalls. The indices were applied in Tenerife (Canary Islands), which presents exceptional conditions for analysing slope stability in volcanic rocks because of its mountainous orography with very steep slopes and a wide variety of materials. These conditions have frequently precipitated slope instability, causing significant damage to housing, beaches, roads and other infrastructures. After applying these indices to a number of slopes representative of the island’s wide variety of geological, geomorphological and climatic conditions, the results obtained were compared with the actual behaviour of the slopes, determined from extensive rockfall inventory data and in situ geomechanical surveys. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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Review

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20 pages, 2300 KiB  
Review
Probability Methods for Stability Design of Open Pit Rock Slopes: An Overview
by Musah Abdulai and Mostafa Sharifzadeh
Geosciences 2021, 11(8), 319; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences11080319 - 28 Jul 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4031
Abstract
The rock slope stability analysis can be performed using deterministic and probabilistic approaches. The deterministic analysis based on the safety concept factor uses fixed representative values for each input parameter involved without considering the variability and uncertainty of the rock mass properties. Probabilistic [...] Read more.
The rock slope stability analysis can be performed using deterministic and probabilistic approaches. The deterministic analysis based on the safety concept factor uses fixed representative values for each input parameter involved without considering the variability and uncertainty of the rock mass properties. Probabilistic analysis with the calculation of probability of failure instead of the factor of safety against failure is emerging in practice. Such analyses offer a more rational approach to quantify risk by incorporating uncertainty in the input variables and evaluating the probability of the failure of a system. In rock slope engineering, uncertainty and variability involve a large scatter of geo-structural data and varied geomechanical test results. There has been extensive reliability analysis of rock slope stability in the literature, and different methods of reliability are being employed for assessment of the probability of failure and the reliability of a slope. Probabilistic approaches include Monte Carlo simulation (MCS), the point estimate method (PEM), the response surface method (RSM), first- and second-order reliability methods (FORMs and SORMs), and the first-order second-moment method (FOSM). Although these methods may be complicated, they provide a more complete definition of risk. Probabilistic slope stability analysis is an option in most commercial software; however, the use of this method is not common in practice. This paper provides an overview of the literature on some of the main probabilistic reliability-based methods available for the design of the rock slope in open pit mining. To demonstrate its applicability, the paper investigates the stability of a rock slope in an open pit mine in the Goldfields region, Western Australia. Two different approaches were adopted: deterministic stability analysis using two-dimensional limit equilibrium and finite element shear strength reduction methods using SLIDE and RS2 software, respectively, and probabilistic analysis by applying the MCS and RSM methods in the limit equilibrium method. In this example, the slope stability analysis was performed using the Spencer method with Cuckoo search optimization to locate the critical slip surface. The results obtained were compared and commented on. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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Other

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7 pages, 9831 KiB  
Technical Note
Trustworthiness of Flexible Rockfall Protection Systems
by Axel Volkwein, Marcel Fulde and Ingvar Krieger Hauksson
Geosciences 2021, 11(5), 197; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/geosciences11050197 - 01 May 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2463
Abstract
Flexible rockfall protection systems are an effective and efficient remedy against rockfalls with energy levels between 100 and up to 10,000 kJ. Although they are heavily in use all around the world, the backgrounds that guarantee a reliable barrier are not well known [...] Read more.
Flexible rockfall protection systems are an effective and efficient remedy against rockfalls with energy levels between 100 and up to 10,000 kJ. Although they are heavily in use all around the world, the backgrounds that guarantee a reliable barrier are not well known by most of intervening agents and users. This contribution gives some insights on how to judge the capability, reliability, and trustworthiness of a rockfall protection system. The paper focuses on three strategies to build up confidence and trustworthiness regarding the barrier’s correct or expected functioning: testing, certification, and how to assess adaptions of standard barrier systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Hazard)
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