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Minerals
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Battery Minerals
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Battery Minerals

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2020) | Viewed by 38372

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Rodrigo Serna-Guerrero

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Aalto University, PO Box 16200, 00076 Aalto, Finland
Interests: battery minerals; mineral processing; recycling; circular economy; flotation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The electrification of large industries, such as automotive and power generation, with the aim of reducing their environmental impact, has resulted in a forecasted demand for batteries with an unprecedented growth. Evidently, this is associated with questions on how sufficient raw materials will be provided to satisfy the ambitious targets set by governments and companies worldwide. New and more efficient technologies are therefore needed for the production and processing of battery minerals. Indeed, the future demand of rechargeable batteries is re-shaping the raw materials field, for example, with valuable metals such as Co no longer considered only as by-products, or the exploration of new sources of Li. In this Special Issue, we aim at bringing together experts working on finding solutions to the impending need for battery materials. Articles dealing with novel findings on extraction and processing technologies of battery raw materials from primary or secondary sources are welcomed. The submission of manuscripts touching on aspects of resource efficiency and circular economy is particularly encouraged.

Dr. Rodrigo Serna-Guerrero
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • battery minerals
  • mineral processing
  • pyrometallurgy
  • hydrometallurgy
  • geometallurgy
  • mineral characterization
  • waste management
  • circular economy

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 9317 KiB  
Article
Worth from Waste: Utilizing a Graphite-Rich Fraction from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries as Alternative Reductant in Nickel Slag Cleaning
by Anna Dańczak, Ronja Ruismäki, Tommi Rinne, Lassi Klemettinen, Hugh O’Brien, Pekka Taskinen, Ari Jokilaakso and Rodrigo Serna-Guerrero
Minerals 2021, 11(7), 784; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11070784 - 19 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2791
Abstract
One possible way of recovering metals from spent lithium-ion batteries is to integrate the recycling with already existing metallurgical processes. This study continues our effort on integrating froth flotation and nickel-slag cleaning process for metal recovery from spent batteries (SBs), using anodic graphite [...] Read more.
One possible way of recovering metals from spent lithium-ion batteries is to integrate the recycling with already existing metallurgical processes. This study continues our effort on integrating froth flotation and nickel-slag cleaning process for metal recovery from spent batteries (SBs), using anodic graphite as the main reductant. The SBs used in this study was a froth fraction from flotation of industrially prepared black mass. The effect of different ratios of Ni-slag to SBs on the time-dependent phase formation and metal behavior was investigated. The possible influence of graphite and sulfur contents in the system on the metal alloy/matte formation was described. The trace element (Co, Cu, Ni, and Mn) concentrations in the slag were analyzed using the laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) technique. The distribution coefficients of cobalt and nickel between the metallic or sulfidic phase (metal alloy/matte) and the coexisting slag increased with the increasing amount of SBs in the starting mixture. However, with the increasing concentrations of graphite in the starting mixture (from 0.99 wt.% to 3.97 wt.%), the Fe concentration in both metal alloy and matte also increased (from 29 wt.% to 68 wt.% and from 7 wt.% to 49 wt.%, respectively), which may be challenging if further hydrometallurgical treatment is expected. Therefore, the composition of metal alloy/matte must be adjusted depending on the further steps for metal recovery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Minerals)
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17 pages, 7644 KiB  
Article
Oxidizing Roasting Behavior and Leaching Performance for the Recovery of Spent LiFePO4 Batteries
by Yafei Jie, Shenghai Yang, Yun Li, Duoqiang Zhao, Yanqing Lai and Yongming Chen
Minerals 2020, 10(11), 949; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min10110949 - 25 Oct 2020
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3436
Abstract
In this study, the effects of oxidizing roasting process on the liberation of cathode materials from Al foil under different conditions were investigated systematically. The mineralogical characteristics of the cathode materials before and after thermal treatment were extensively characterized using scanning electron microscopy [...] Read more.
In this study, the effects of oxidizing roasting process on the liberation of cathode materials from Al foil under different conditions were investigated systematically. The mineralogical characteristics of the cathode materials before and after thermal treatment were extensively characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) as well as Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results indicated that the increase in roasting temperature, oxygen concentration, and air flow rate enhanced the liberation of cathode materials. The cathode materials were gradually oxidized to Li3Fe2(PO4)3 and Fe2O3. Further, the carbon and fluorine content in the cathode materials decreased slowly during the thermal treatment, while the Al content increased. When the roasting temperature exceeded the melting point of Al, the Al foils were ablated and the cathode materials adhered to the Al foils again, resulting in difficulty in separation. The cathode materials leaching performance test results demonstrated that the oxidation of cathode materials had a negative effect on the leaching of Fe in sulfuric acid leaching system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Minerals)
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16 pages, 9969 KiB  
Article
High-Grade Flake Graphite Deposits in Metamorphic Schist Belt, Central Finland—Mineralogy and Beneficiation of Graphite for Lithium-Ion Battery Applications
by Thair Al-Ani, Seppo Leinonen, Timo Ahtola and Dandara Salvador
Minerals 2020, 10(8), 680; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min10080680 - 30 Jul 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6576
Abstract
More than 40 m length of drill cores were collected from four boreholes drilled by Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) and Outokumpu Oy in high-grade metamorphic rocks of Rautalampi and Käypysuo, Central Finland. The hosted rocks of the graphite mineralization were mica–quartz schist [...] Read more.
More than 40 m length of drill cores were collected from four boreholes drilled by Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) and Outokumpu Oy in high-grade metamorphic rocks of Rautalampi and Käypysuo, Central Finland. The hosted rocks of the graphite mineralization were mica–quartz schist and biotite gneiss. The graphite-bearing rocks and final concentrated graphite powder were studied with petrographic microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDS), Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray analysis (XRD and XRF). A majority of the studied graphite had a distinctly flakey (0.2–1 mm in length) or platy morphology with a well-ordered crystal lattice. Beneficiation studies were performed to produce high-purity graphite concentrate, where rod milling and froth flotation produced a final concentrate of 90% fixed carbon with recoveries between 67% and 83%. Particle size reduction was tested by a ball and an attritor mill. Graphite purification by alkaline roasting process with 35% NaOH at 250 °C and leached by 10% H2SO4 solution at room temperature could reach the graphite purity level of 99.4%. Our analysis suggested that purifying by multistage flotation processes, followed by alkaline roasting and acid leaching, is a considerable example to obtain high-grade graphite required for lithium-ion battery production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Minerals)
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20 pages, 6691 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Supply Chain under Uncertainty: The Case of Lithium
by Daniel Calisaya-Azpilcueta, Sebastián Herrera-Leon, Freddy A. Lucay and Luis A. Cisternas
Minerals 2020, 10(7), 604; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min10070604 - 03 Jul 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4313
Abstract
Modeling the global markets is complicated due to the existence of uncertainty in the information available. In addition, the lithium supply chain presents a complex network due to interconnections that it presents and the interdependencies among its elements. This complex supply chain has [...] Read more.
Modeling the global markets is complicated due to the existence of uncertainty in the information available. In addition, the lithium supply chain presents a complex network due to interconnections that it presents and the interdependencies among its elements. This complex supply chain has one large market, electric vehicles (EVs). EV production is increasing the global demand for lithium; in terms of the lithium supply chain, an EV requires lithium-ion batteries, and lithium-ion batteries require lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide. Realistically, the mass balance in the global lithium supply chain involves more elements and more markets, and together with the assortment of databases in the literature, make the modeling through deterministic models difficult. Modeling the global supply chain under uncertainty could facilitate an assessment of the lithium supply chain between production and demand, and therefore could help to determine the distribution of materials for identifying the variables with the highest importance in an undersupply scenario. In the literature, deterministic models are commonly used to model the lithium supply chain but do not simultaneously consider the variation of data among databases for the lithium supply chain. This study performs stochastic modeling of the lithium supply chain by combining a material flow analysis with an uncertainty analysis and global sensitivity analysis. The combination of these methods evaluates an undersupply scenario. The stochastic model simulations allow a comparison between the known demand and the supply calculated under uncertainty, in order to identify the most important variables affecting lithium distribution. The dynamic simulations show that the most probable scenario is one where supply does not cover the increasing demand, and the stochastic modeling classifies the variables by their importance and sensibility. In conclusion, the most important variables in a scenario of EV undersupply are the lithium hydroxide produced from lithium carbonate, the lithium hydroxide produced from solid rock, and the production of traditional batteries. The global sensitivity analysis indicates that the critical variables which affect the uncertainty in EV production change with time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Minerals)
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22 pages, 8627 KiB  
Article
Integrated Battery Scrap Recycling and Nickel Slag Cleaning with Methane Reduction
by Ronja Ruismäki, Anna Dańczak, Lassi Klemettinen, Pekka Taskinen, Daniel Lindberg and Ari Jokilaakso
Minerals 2020, 10(5), 435; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min10050435 - 13 May 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3830
Abstract
Innovative recycling routes are needed to fulfill the increasing demand for battery raw materials to ensure sufficiency in the future. The integration of battery scrap recycling and nickel slag cleaning by reduction with methane was experimentally researched for the first time in this [...] Read more.
Innovative recycling routes are needed to fulfill the increasing demand for battery raw materials to ensure sufficiency in the future. The integration of battery scrap recycling and nickel slag cleaning by reduction with methane was experimentally researched for the first time in this study. Industrial nickel slag from the direct Outotec nickel flash smelting (DON) process was mixed with both synthetic and industrial battery scrap. The end products of the slag-scrap mixtures after reduction at 1400 °C in a CH4 (5 vol %)-N2 atmosphere were an Ni–Co–Cu–Fe metal alloy and FeOx–SiO2 slag. It was noted that a higher initial amount of cobalt in the feed mixture increased the recovery of cobalt to the metal alloy. Increasing the reduction time decreased the fraction of sulfur in the metal alloy and magnetite in the slag. After reduction, manganese was deported in the slag and most of the zinc volatilized. This study confirmed the possibility of replacing coke with methane as a non-fossil reductant in nickel slag cleaning on a laboratory scale, and the recovery of battery metals cobalt and nickel in the slag cleaning process with good yields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Minerals)
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Review

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29 pages, 7324 KiB  
Review
Mineral-Inspired Materials: Synthetic Phosphate Analogues for Battery Applications
by Olga Yakubovich, Nellie Khasanova and Evgeny Antipov
Minerals 2020, 10(6), 524; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min10060524 - 07 Jun 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4872
Abstract
For successful development of novel rechargeable batteries, considerable efforts should be devoted to identifying suitable cathode materials that will ensure a proper level of energy output, structural stability, and affordable cost. Among various compounds explored as electrode materials, structural analogues of minerals–natural stable [...] Read more.
For successful development of novel rechargeable batteries, considerable efforts should be devoted to identifying suitable cathode materials that will ensure a proper level of energy output, structural stability, and affordable cost. Among various compounds explored as electrode materials, structural analogues of minerals–natural stable inorganic solids–occupy a prominent place. The largest number of varieties of phosphate minerals occurs in rare metal granite pegmatites, and many of which contain transition metals as essential components. Transition metal phosphates are promising candidates for exploration as cathode materials due to a perfect combination of easily scalable synthesis, moderate-to-high voltage operation, thermal/chemical stability, and environmental safety. However, impurities usually presented in natural objects, and often inappropriate sample morphologies, do not permit the use of minerals as battery electrode materials. Nevertheless, the minerals of different classes, especially phosphates, are considered as prototypes for developing novel materials for battery applications. The crystal chemical peculiarities of the phosphate representatives that are most relevant in this aspect and the electrochemical characteristics of their synthetic analogues are discussed here. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Minerals)
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30 pages, 2789 KiB  
Review
Mineral Processing and Metallurgical Treatment of Lead Vanadate Ores
by Ivan Silin, Klaus M. Hahn, Devrim Gürsel, Dario Kremer, Lars Gronen, Srećko Stopić, Bernd Friedrich and Hermann Wotruba
Minerals 2020, 10(2), 197; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min10020197 - 22 Feb 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 11625
Abstract
Vanadium has been strongly moving into focus in the last decade. Due to its chemical properties, vanadium is vital for applications in the upcoming renewable energy revolution as well as usage in special alloys. The uprising demand forces the industry to consider the [...] Read more.
Vanadium has been strongly moving into focus in the last decade. Due to its chemical properties, vanadium is vital for applications in the upcoming renewable energy revolution as well as usage in special alloys. The uprising demand forces the industry to consider the exploration of less attractive sources besides vanadiferous titanomagnetite deposits, such as lead vanadate deposits. Mineral processing and metallurgical treatment of lead vanadate deposits stopped in the 1980s, although the deposits contain a noteworthy amount of the desired resource vanadium. There has been a wide variety of research activities in the first half of the last century, including density sorting and flotation to recover concentrates as well as pyro- and hydrometallurgical treatment to produce vanadium oxide. There have been ecological issues and technical restrictions in the past that made these deposits uninteresting. Meanwhile, regarding the development of mineral processing and metallurgy, there are methods and strategies to reconsider lead vanadates as a highly-potential vanadium resource. This review does not merely provide an overview of lead vanadate sources and the challenges in previous mechanical and metallurgical processing activities, but shows opportunities to ensure vanadium production out of primary sources in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Minerals)
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