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Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses

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A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 40256

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Javier Martin

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Guest Editor

Head of WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Poliomyelitis, Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, Potters Bar, EN6 3QG, UK
Interests: human enteroviruses; disease surveillance; poliovirus eradication; environmental surveillance; direct detection; enterovirus vaccines; virus evolution

Dr. Erwin Duizer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Head of WHO Global Specialized laboratory for Polio and National Polio Laboratory (NPL), Centre for Infectious Diseases Control (CIb), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Pobox 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Interests: environmental surveillance; poliovirus eradication; virus transmission; virus inactivation; virus cultivation

Special Issue Information

Human enteroviruses (EVs) are common human pathogens that have been associated with severe disease including syndromes such as acute respiratory disease, meningitis, myocarditis, hepatitis, and flaccid paralysis, the most notorious being acute flaccid paralytic poliomyelitis caused by poliovirus. EVs belong to the family Picornaviridae and are classified into four species (EV-A to EV-D), with over 100 different EV serotypes known at present. The focus of clinical investigations in recent years has expanded to the identification of EV serotypes other than poliovirus associated with severe neurological syndromes such as EV-D68 and EV-A71, which have been linked to polio-like paralytic cases. In addition, new EV serotypes have been discovered, notably EV-C in respiratory samples associated with mild to moderately severe respiratory disease and occasional neurological complications, often detected by direct sequencing of clinical samples.

Apart from poliovirus, there is no systematic surveillance for any other EV serotype. For this reason, information on the prevalence, circulation, and clinical relevance of other EV serotypes is patchy. Additionally, most EVs replicate in the gastrointestinal tract, even those causing mostly respiratory symptoms, and can be detected in stool and wastewater samples. This provides opportunities for environmental surveillance, which includes asymptomatic individuals, and could help setting up alert systems for the early detection of circulation of enterovirus serotypes potentially causing disease in humans.

The focus of this Special Issue is to collect scientific evidence of the different ongoing efforts for the surveillance of polio and non-polio enteroviruses across the world. We encourage the submission of manuscripts describing the prevalence and biological properties of different EV serotypes in different countries and regions as well as the use of novel technologies such as direct detection by deep sequencing analysis to increase the sensitivity of virus identification. Results from clinical diagnostic and surveillance studies as well as supplementary surveillance activities such as environmental surveillance are welcome.

Dr. Javier Martin
Dr. Erwin Duizer
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

human enteroviruses
disease surveillance
poliovirus eradication
direct virus detection
environmental surveillance
phylogenetic analysis
virus evolution
molecular basis for virulence
virus transmission

Published Papers (14 papers)

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8 pages, 601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Surveillance for Risk Assessment in the Context of a Phase 2 Clinical Trial of Type 2 Novel Oral Polio Vaccine in Panama

by Magda Rojas-Bonilla, Angela Coulliette-Salmond, Hanen Belgasmi, Kimberly Wong, Leanna Sayyad, Everardo Vega, Fabian Grimoldi, M. Steven Oberste and Ricardo Rüttimann

Viruses 2021, 13(7), 1355; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13071355 - 13 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3164

Abstract

Environmental surveillance was recommended for risk mitigation in a novel oral polio vaccine-2 (nOPV2) clinical trial (M5-ABMG) to monitor excretion, potential circulation, and loss of attenuation of the two nOPV2 candidates. The nOPV2 candidates were developed to address the risk of poliovirus (PV) type 2 circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) as part of the global eradication strategy. Between November 2018 and January 2020, an environmental surveillance study for the clinical trial was conducted in parallel to the M5-ABMG clinical trial at five locations in Panama. The collection sites were located upstream from local treatment plant inlets, to capture the excreta from trial participants and their community. Laboratory analyses of 49 environmental samples were conducted using the two-phase separation method. Novel OPV2 strains were not detected in sewage samples collected during the study period. However, six samples were positive for Sabin-like type 3 PV, two samples were positive for Sabin-like type 1 PV, and non-polio enteroviruses NPEVs were detected in 27 samples. One of the nOPV2 candidates has been granted Emergency Use Listing by the World Health Organization and initial use started in March 2021. This environmental surveillance study provided valuable risk mitigation information to support the Emergency Use Listing application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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8 pages, 1048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neutralising Antibodies against Enterovirus and Parechovirus in IVIG Reflect General Circulation: A Tool for Sero-Surveillance

by Karen Couderé, Karlijn van der Straten, Lieke Brouwer, Gerrit Koen, Hetty van Eijk, Dasja Pajkrt, Jean-Luc Murk and Katja C. Wolthers

Viruses 2021, 13(6), 1028; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13061028 - 29 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2451

Abstract

Non-polio enteroviruses (NPEV) and parechoviruses (PeV) are widespread pathogens that cause significant morbidity. Surveillance is based on culturing or genotyping of virus strains found in clinical samples. Sero-surveillance, by measuring neutralising antibodies (nAb) through virus neutralisation assays (VNA), could provide additional information as it offers a more comprehensive overview of exposure to circulating types in the general population. In our study we evaluated Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) to generate sero-surveillance data. We performed VNA of nineteen NPEV and PeV with Dutch IVIG batches from two different time points (2010 and 2017) and an IVIG batch from Vietnam (2011). We compared our findings with geno- and sero-surveillance data and evaluated changes over time and between the two countries. Our findings show a good correlation with what is known from geno-surveillance data. The highest nAb titres were found against strains from Enterovirus B, while we did not observe nAb titres against strains belonging to Enterovirus C. In conclusion, we demonstrated that sero-surveillance by means of IVIG can be used to obtain insight into circulation of EV and PeV genotypes. This is of particular interest for public health, to evaluate changes over time and population susceptibility to emerging genotypes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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12 pages, 1182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surveillance for Enteroviruses Associated with Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease, and Other Mucocutaneous Symptoms in Spain, 2006–2020

by Nieves Martínez-López, Carmen Muñoz-Almagro, Cristian Launes, Ana Navascués, Manuel Imaz-Pérez, Jordi Reina, María Pilar Romero, Cristina Calvo, Montserrat Ruiz-García, Gregoria Megias, Juan Valencia-Ramos, Almudena Otero and María Cabrerizo

Viruses 2021, 13(5), 781; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13050781 - 28 Apr 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3133

Abstract

Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a mild illness caused by enteroviruses (EV), although in some Asian countries, large outbreaks have been reported in the last 25 years, with a considerable incidence of neurological complications. This study describes epidemiological and clinical characteristics of EV infections involved in HFMD and other mucocutaneous symptoms from 2006 to 2020 in Spain. EV-positive samples from 368 patients were included. EV species A were identified in 85.1% of those typed EV. Coxsackievirus (CV) A6 was the prevalent serotype (60.9%), followed by EV-A71 (9.9%) and CVA16 (7.7%). Infections affected children (1–6 years old) mainly, and show seasonality with peaks in spring–summer and autumn. Clinical data indicated few cases of atypical HFMD as well as those with neurological complications (associated with the 2016 EV-A71 outbreak). Phylogenetic analysis of CVA6 VP1 sequences showed different sub-clusters circulating from 2010 to present. In conclusion, HFMD or exanthemas case reporting has increased in Spain in recent years, probably associated with an increase in circulation of CVA6, although they did not seem to show greater severity. However, EV surveillance in mucocutaneous manifestations should be improved to identify the emergence of new types or variants causing outbreaks and more severe pathologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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11 pages, 6886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Typing of Human Enteroviruses from Clinical Samples by Entire-Capsid Next Generation Sequencing

by Manasi Majumdar, Cristina Celma, Elaine Pegg, Krunal Polra, Jake Dunning and Javier Martin

Viruses 2021, 13(4), 641; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13040641 - 08 Apr 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2504

Abstract

There are increasing concerns of infections by enteroviruses (EVs) causing severe disease in humans. EV diagnostic laboratory methods show differences in sensitivity and specificity as well as the level of genetic information provided. We examined a detection method for EVs based on next generation sequencing (NGS) analysis of amplicons covering the entire capsid coding region directly synthesized from clinical samples. One hundred and twelve clinical samples from England; previously shown to be positive for EVs, were analyzed. There was high concordance between the results obtained by the new NGS approach and those from the conventional Sanger method used originally with agreement in the serotypes identified in the 83 samples that were typed by both methods. The sensitivity and specificity of the NGS method compared to those of the conventional Sanger sequencing typing assay were 94.74% (95% confidence interval, 73.97% to 99.87%) and 97.85% (92.45% to 99.74%) for Enterovirus A, 93.75% (82.80% to 98.69%) and 89.06% (78.75% to 95.49%) for Enterovirus B, 100% (59.04% to 100%) and 98.10% (93.29% to 99.77%) for Enterovirus C, and 100% (75.29% to 100%) and 100% (96.34% to 100%) for Enterovirus D. The NGS method identified five EVs in previously untyped samples as well as additional viruses in some samples, indicating co-infection. This method can be easily expanded to generate whole-genome EV sequences as we show here for EV-D68. Information from capsid and whole-genome sequences is critical to help identifying the genetic basis for changes in viral properties and establishing accurate spatial-temporal associations between EV strains of public health relevance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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15 pages, 2194 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Surveillance for Polioviruses in Haïti (2017–2019): The Dynamic Process for the Establishment and Monitoring of Sampling Sites

by Mary M. Alleman, Angela D. Coulliette-Salmond, Pierre Wilnique, Hanen Belgasmi-Wright, Leanna Sayyad, Kimberly Wong, Edmund Gue, Robert Barrais, Gloria Rey-Benito, Cara C. Burns and Everardo Vega

Viruses 2021, 13(3), 505; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030505 - 18 Mar 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2475

Abstract

Haïti is at risk for wild poliovirus (WPV) importation and circulation, as well as vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) emergence. Environmental surveillance (ES) for polioviruses was established in Port au Prince and Gonaïves in 2016. During 2017–2019, initial ES sites were re-evaluated, and ES was expanded into Cap Haïtien and Saint Marc. Wastewater samples and data on weather, hour of collection, and sample temperature and pH were collected every 4 weeks during March 2017–December 2019 (272 sampling events) from 21 sites in Cap Haïtien, Gonaïves, Port au Prince, and Saint Marc. Samples were processed for the detection of polio and non-polio enteroviruses using the two-phase and “Concentration and Filter Elution” methodologies. Polioviruses were serotyped and underwent intra-typic characterization. No WPV or VDPVs were isolated. Sabin-like polioviruses (oral vaccine strain) of serotypes 1 and 3 were sporadically detected. Five of six (83%), one of six (17%), five of six (83%), and two of three (67%) sites evaluated in Cap Haïtien, Gonaïves, Port au Prince, and Saint Marc, respectively, had enterovirus isolation from >50% of sampling events; these results and considerations, such as watershed population size and overlap, influence of sea water, and excessive particulates in samples, were factors in site retention or termination. The evaluation of 21 ES sampling sites in four Haïtian cities led to the termination of 11 sites. Every-four-weekly sampling continues at the remaining 10 sites across the four cities as a core Global Polio Eradication Initiative activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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12 pages, 11101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method Development for Enteric Virus Recovery from Primary Sludge

by Yarrow S. Linden, Christine S. Fagnant-Sperati, Alexandra L. Kossik, Joanna Ciol Harrison, Nicola K. Beck, David S. Boyle and John Scott Meschke

Viruses 2021, 13(3), 440; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030440 - 09 Mar 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1779

Abstract

Enteric viruses, such as poliovirus, are a leading cause of gastroenteritis, which causes 2–3 million deaths annually. Environmental surveillance of wastewater supplements clinical surveillance for monitoring enteric virus circulation. However, while many environmental surveillance methods require liquid samples, some at-risk locations utilize pit latrines with waste characterized by high solids content. This study’s objective was to develop and evaluate enteric virus concentration protocols for high solids content samples. Two existing protocols were modified and tested using poliovirus type 1 (PV1) seeded into primary sludge. Method 1 (M1) utilized acid adsorption, followed by 2 or 3 elutions (glycine/sodium chloride and/or threonine/sodium chloride), and skimmed milk flocculation. Method 2 (M2) began with centrifugation. The liquid fraction was filtered through a ViroCap filter and eluted (beef extract/glycine). The solid fraction was eluted (beef extract/disodium hydrogen phosphate/citric acid) and concentrated by skimmed milk flocculation. Recovery was enumerated by plaque assay. M1 yielded higher PV1 recovery than M2, though this result was not statistically significant (26.1% and 15.9%, respectively). M1 was further optimized, resulting in significantly greater PV1 recovery when compared to the original protocol (p < 0.05). This method can be used to improve understanding of enteric virus presence in communities without liquid waste streams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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8 pages, 656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Polio Enteroviruses from Acute Flaccid Paralysis Surveillance in Korea, 2012–2019

by Youngsil Yoon, Yong-Pyo Lee, Deog-Yong Lee, Hye-Jin Kim, June-Woo Lee, Sangwon Lee, Chun Kang, Wooyoung Choi, Joong Hyun Bin, Young Hoon Kim, Myung-Guk Han and Hae Ji Kang

Viruses 2021, 13(3), 411; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030411 - 05 Mar 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2352

Abstract

The risk of polio importation and re-emergence persists since epidemic polio still occurs in some countries, and the resurgence of polio occurring almost 20 years after polio eradication was declared in Asia has been reported. We analyzed the results of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance in Korea to assess the quality of AFP surveillance and understand the etiology of non-polio enterovirus (NPEV)-associated central nervous system diseases in a polio-free area. We investigated 637 AFP patients under 15 years of age whose cases were confirmed during 2012–2019 by virus isolation, real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and VP1 gene sequencing. Among the 637 AFP cases, NPEV was detected in 213 (33.4%) patients, with the majority observed in EV-A71, with 54.9% of NPEV positives. EV-A71 has been shown to play a role as a major causative agent in most neurological diseases except for Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), and meningitis. This study provides information on the AFP surveillance situation in Korea and highlights the polio eradication stage in the monitoring and characterization of NPEV against the outbreak of neurological infectious diseases such as polio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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13 pages, 311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Circulation and Molecular Epidemiology of Enteroviruses in Paralyzed, Immunodeficient and Healthy Individuals in Tunisia, a Country with a Polio-Free Status for Decades

by Anissa Chouikha, Dorra Rezig, Nadia Driss, Ichrak Abdelkhalek, Ahlem Ben Yahia, Henda Touzi, Zina Meddeb, Essia Ben Farhat, Mahrez Yahyaoui and Henda Triki

Viruses 2021, 13(3), 380; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030380 - 27 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2299

Abstract

This report is an overview of enterovirus (EV) detection in Tunisian polio-suspected paralytic cases (acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) cases), healthy contacts and patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PID) during an 11-year period. A total of 2735 clinical samples were analyzed for EV isolation and type identification, according to the recommended protocols of the World Health Organization. Three poliovirus (PV) serotypes and 28 different nonpolio enteroviruses (NPEVs) were detected. The NPEV detection rate was 4.3%, 2.8% and 12.4% in AFP cases, healthy contacts and PID patients, respectively. The predominant species was EV-B, and the circulation of viruses from species EV-A was noted since 2011. All PVs detected were of Sabin origin. The PV detection rate was higher in PID patients compared to AFP cases and contacts (6.8%, 1.5% and 1.3% respectively). PV2 was not detected since 2015. Using nucleotide sequencing of the entire VP1 region, 61 strains were characterized as Sabin-like. Among them, six strains of types 1 and 3 PV were identified as pre-vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs). Five type 2 PV, four strains belonging to type 1 PV and two strains belonging to type 3 PV, were classified as iVDPVs. The data presented provide a comprehensive picture of EVs circulating in Tunisia over an 11-year period, reveal changes in their epidemiology as compared to previous studies and highlight the need to set up a warning system to avoid unnoticed PVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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18 pages, 4351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Diversity of Human Non-Polio Enterovirus Serotypes Identified in Contaminated Water in Nigeria

by Manasi Majumdar, Dimitra Klapsa, Thomas Wilton, Erika Bujaki, Maria Dolores Fernandez-Garcia, Temitope Oluwasegun Cephas Faleye, Adefunke Olufunmilayo Oyero, Moses Olubusuyi Adewumi, Kader Ndiaye, Johnson Adekunle Adeniji and Javier Martin

Viruses 2021, 13(2), 249; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13020249 - 05 Feb 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2645

Abstract

Human enteroviruses (EVs) are highly prevalent in sewage and have been associated with human diseases with complications leading to severe neurological syndromes. We have used a recently developed molecular method to investigate the presence of EVs in eight samples collected in 2017–2018 from water streams contaminated by drainage channels in three different locations in Nigeria. A total of 93 human EV strains belonging to 45 different serotypes were identified, far exceeding the number of strains and serotypes found in similar samples in previous studies. Next generation sequencing analysis retrieved whole-capsid genomic nucleotide sequences of EV strains belonging to all four A, B, C, and D species. Our results further demonstrate the value of environmental surveillance for the detection of EV transmission of both serotypes commonly associated with clinical syndromes, such as EV-A71, and those that appear to circulate silently but could eventually cause outbreaks and disease. Several uncommon serotypes, rarely reported elsewhere, were detected such as EV-A119, EV-B87, EV-C116, and EV-D111. Ten EV serotypes were detected in Nigeria for the first time and two of them, CV-A12 and EV-B86, firstly described in Africa. This method can be expanded to generate whole-genome EV sequences as we show here for one EV-D111 strain. Our data revealed phylogenetic relationships of Nigerian sewage strains with EV strains reported elsewhere, mostly from African origin, and provided new insights into the whole-genome structure of emerging serotype EV-D111 and recombination events among EV-D serotypes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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15 pages, 1360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Surveillance through Next-Generation Sequencing to Unveil the Diversity of Human Enteroviruses beyond the Reported Clinical Cases

by Andrés Lizasoain, Daiana Mir, Gisella Masachessi, Adrián Farías, Nélida Rodríguez-Osorio, Matías Victoria, Silvia Nates and Rodney Colina

Viruses 2021, 13(1), 120; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13010120 - 17 Jan 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2404

Abstract

The knowledge about circulation of Human Enteroviruses (EVs) obtained through medical diagnosis in Argentina is scarce. Wastewater samples monthly collected in Córdoba, Argentina during 2011–2012, and then in 2017–2018 were retrospectively studied to assess the diversity of EVs in the community. Partial VP1 gene was amplified by PCR from wastewater concentrates, and amplicons were subject of next-generation sequencing and genetic analyses. There were 41 EVs detected, from which ~50% had not been previously reported in Argentina. Most of the characterized EVs (60%) were detected at both sampling periods, with similar values of intratype nucleotide diversity. Exceptions were enterovirus A71, coxsackievirus B4, echovirus 14, and echovirus 30, which diversified in 2017–2018. There was a predominance of types from EV-C in 2017–2018, evidencing a common circulation of these types throughout the year in the community. Interestingly, high genetic similarity was evidenced among environmental strains of echovirus 30 circulating in 2011–2012 and co-temporal isolates obtained from patients suffering aseptic meningitis in different locations of Argentina. This study provides an updated insight about EVs circulating in an important region of South America, and suggests a valuable role of wastewater-based epidemiology in predicting outbreaks before the onset of cases in the community. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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9 pages, 869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pan-Enterovirus Amplicon-Based High-Throughput Sequencing Detects the Complete Capsid of a EVA71 Genotype C1 Variant via Wastewater-Based Epidemiology in Arizona

by Temitope O. C. Faleye, Erin Driver, Devin Bowes, Sangeet Adhikari, Deborah Adams, Arvind Varsani, Rolf U. Halden and Matthew Scotch

Viruses 2021, 13(1), 74; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13010074 - 07 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3138

Abstract

We describe the complete capsid of a genotype C1-like Enterovirus A71 variant recovered from wastewater in a neighborhood in the greater Tempe, Arizona area (Southwest United States) in May 2020 using a pan-enterovirus amplicon-based high-throughput sequencing strategy. The variant seems to have been circulating for over two years, but its sequence has not been documented in that period. As the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has resulted in changes in health-seeking behavior and overwhelmed pathogen diagnostics, our findings highlight the importance of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE ) as an early warning system for virus surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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15 pages, 2624 KiB

Open AccessReview

World-Wide Prevalence and Genotype Distribution of Enteroviruses

by Lieke Brouwer, Giulia Moreni, Katja C. Wolthers and Dasja Pajkrt

Viruses 2021, 13(3), 434; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030434 - 08 Mar 2021

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 3852

Abstract

Enteroviruses (EVs) are highly prevalent viruses world-wide, causing a wide range of diseases in both children and adults. Insight in the global prevalence of EVs is important to define their clinical significance and total disease burden, and assists in making therapeutic decisions. While many studies have been conducted to describe epidemiology of EVs in specific (sub)populations and patient cohorts, little effort has been made to aggregate the available evidence. In the current study, we conducted a search in the PubMed and Embase (Ovid) databases to identify articles reporting EV prevalence and type distribution. We summarized the findings of 153 included studies. We found that EVs are highly prevalent viruses in all continents. Enterovirus B was the most detected species worldwide, while the other species showed continent-specific differences, with Enterovirus C more detected in Africa and Enterovirus A more detected in Asia. Echovirus 30 was by far the most detected type, especially in studies conducted in Europe. EV types in species Enterovirus B—including echovirus 30—were often detected in patient groups with neurological infections and in cerebrospinal fluid, while Enterovirus C types were often found in stool samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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11 pages, 1372 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Detection of Enterovirus D68 in Wastewater Samples from the UK between July and November 2021

by Alison Tedcastle, Thomas Wilton, Elaine Pegg, Dimitra Klapsa, Erika Bujaki, Ryan Mate, Martin Fritzsche, Manasi Majumdar and Javier Martin

Viruses 2022, 14(1), 143; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14010143 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2930

Abstract

Infection with enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) has been linked with severe neurological disease such as acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) in recent years. However, active surveillance for EV-D68 is lacking, which makes full assessment of this association difficult. Although a high number of EV-D68 infections were expected in 2020 based on the EV-D68′s known biannual circulation patterns, no apparent increase in EV-D68 detections or AFM cases was observed during 2020. We describe an upsurge of EV-D68 detections in wastewater samples from the United Kingdom between July and November 2021 mirroring the recently reported rise in EV-D68 detections in clinical samples from various European countries. We provide the first publicly available 2021 EV-D68 sequences showing co-circulation of EV-D68 strains from genetic clade D and sub-clade B3 as in previous years. Our results show the value of environmental surveillance (ES) for the early detection of circulating and clinically relevant human viruses. The use of a next-generation sequencing (NGS) approach helped us to estimate the prevalence of EV-D68 viruses among EV strains from other EV serotypes and to detect EV-D68 minor variants. The utility of ES at reducing gaps in virus surveillance for EV-D68 and the possible impact of nonpharmaceutical interventions introduced to control the COVID-19 pandemic on EV-D68 transmission dynamics are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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8 pages, 2291 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Identification of SARS-CoV-2 and Enteroviruses in Sewage Water—A Pilot Study

by Anda Băicuș, Carmen Maria Cherciu and Mihaela Lazăr

Viruses 2021, 13(5), 844; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13050844 - 06 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2806

Abstract

Due to the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), combined with the risk of polio importation from Ukraine, we evaluated the presence of SARS-CoV-2 and enteroviruses in 25 sewage water samples from Romania, concentrated using the WHO method between January 2020 and January 2021. Surveillance for enteroviruses and SARS-CoV-2 are relevant in the calculation of prevalence estimates as well as early detection of the introduction or disappearance of these viruses. For SARS-CoV-2 detection, we used two immunochromatographic nucleocapsid antigenic tests as well as real-time PCR assays, produced for respiratory samples. The isolation of cell culture lines, in accordance with the WHO recommendations, was carried out for enterovirus detection. Twenty-three of the samples investigated were positive in rapid tests for SARS-CoV-2, while the RNA of SARS-CoV-2, detected with Respiratory 2.1 plus a panel Biofire Film array, was present in eight samples. The Allplex 2019-nCoV assay was used for the validation of the tests. There were three genes detected in one sample, E, RdPR, and N, two genes, E and RdPR, in one sample, two genes, RdPR and N, in four samples, one gene, RdPR, in five samples and one gene, N, in one sample. Eight samples were positive for non-polio enteroviruses, and no poliovirus strains were isolated. This study suggests the presence of SARS-CoV-2 and enteroviruses in Romanian sewage water in 2020. As such, our results indicate that a rapid, more specific test should be developed especially for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in sewage water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance for Polio and Non-polio Enteroviruses)

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