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Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Industrial Technologies".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (27 May 2023) | Viewed by 41648

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Cheol-Hong Hwang

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Guest Editor

Department of Fire and Disaster Prevention, Daejeon University, Daejeon 34520, Republic of Korea
Interests: combustion; fuels; pollutant emission; modeling and simulation; measurements; fire safety
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The purpose of this Special Issue is to publish high-quality works obtained from experimental, theoretical, and computational investigations on the fundamentals and applications of fire science and engineering. Since the field of fire science and engineering covers a very wide range from fundamental research to practical application, there are not enough specialized journals where relevant researchers can share in-depth research results. This Special Issue is open to research that can help to better understand complex fire phenomena and ultimately contribute to fire safety design. Potential topics include but are not limited to experimental, theoretical, and numerical simulation studies of fire physics and chemistry, fire dynamics, measurements in fire environments, fire detection and suppression system, fire safety design and management, assessment of fire risk and fire investigation, etc.

We welcome the submission of original works, reviews, and short communications that provide novel insights related to the multidisciplinary fire science and engineering research fields.

Prof. Dr. Cheol-Hong Hwang
Guest Editor

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

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Keywords

Fire chemistry and physics
Fire dynamics
Measurement in fire environments
Fire detection and suppression system
Fire safety design and management
Assessment of fire risk
Fire investigation

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

9 pages, 2195 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Experimental Study on Particle Size Distribution Characteristics of Aerosol for Fire Detection

by Wen-Hui Dong, Xue-Er Sheng, Shu Wang and Tian Deng

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(9), 5592; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13095592 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1394

Abstract

Current optical fire smoke detectors use scattering light intensity as an indicator of smoke concentration and trigger fire alarms when the intensity exceeds a threshold value. However, such detectors are prone to false alarms caused by non-fire aerosols since both fire smokes and non-fire aerosols scatter light. Thus, in order to reduce false alarms caused by non-fire aerosols such as dust and water vapor, fire detectors must be capable of distinguishing fire smoke from non-fire aerosols. Since the light scattering signals depend on the particle size information of aerosols, it is essential to study and characterize the particle size distribution of fire smoke and non-fire aerosols for differentiating them. In this paper, a comprehensive aerosol experimental platform is built to measure the particle size distribution of various typical fire smokes and non-fire aerosols. Through the conducted experiments, we note that there are significant differences in the particle size distributions of typical fire smokes and non-fire aerosols, with a boundary of about 1μm. The experimental results provide fundamental data support of the particle size distribution for developing a better fire detector that accurately identifies smoke. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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17 pages, 10044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study for Smoke Color Classification of Combustibles Using the Distribution of Light Scattering by Smoke Particles

by Hyo-Yeon Jang and Cheol-Hong Hwang

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(1), 669; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13010669 - 03 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2045

Abstract

Photoelectric smoke detectors are used for early detection of building fires, and sensitivity adjustment is generally performed using white smoke generated by the burning of filter paper. Therefore, when black smoke of the same concentration is introduced, the detector is often not activated. To address this problem, differences in the distribution of light scattered by smoke of various colors were analyzed. A light-scattering chamber with a light-receiving unit for various scattering angles was constructed to measure the scattered light generated inside the chamber of the smoke detector. The light scattering distribution was measured for smoke generated from three combustibles—filter paper (white smoke), kerosene (black smoke), and polyurethane (gray-black smoke)—and three analysis criteria were applied. By identifying a section where the measured values were concentrated for a specific analysis criterion and scattering angle, it was confirmed that some combustibles can be distinguished. Specifically, criterion III, a probabilistic section, was presented to determine which combustible smoke particles were close by applying the proposed section in a complex manner. A preliminary study was conducted to evaluate a methodology for the color classification of smoke particles flowing into a smoke detector chamber; this can be utilized as a foundation for determining optical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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18 pages, 5815 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Sinkhole Phenomenon—Changes in Compartment Fire Characteristics Due to Incomplete Combustion before Flame Ejection

by Hong-Seok Yun, Sun-Yeo Mun and Cheol-Hong Hwang

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(23), 12278; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app122312278 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1063

Abstract

In this study, experiments and numeric studies were conducted to analyze the causes of abnormal behavior in temperature, heat flux, and combustion efficiency that occurred before a compartment fire was converted to the under-ventilated condition. The fire experiments were performed using a 1/4 reduced-scale ISO 9705 compartment and propane fuel. Considering that the occurrence and termination of abnormal behavior are related to ventilation conditions, vertical openings of various shapes designed to have the identical ventilation factor (

0.52 A \sqrt{h}

) were used. As a result, an abnormal phenomenon was observed in which the measured heat release rate did not increase despite the increase in the fuel flow rate under the over-ventilation condition in all opening shapes. Due to this phenomenon, the combustion efficiency was reduced to 70% regardless of the opening shape. In order to understand these abnormal behaviors and to analyze the causes of their occurrence, the temperature and chemical species concentrations of the opening discharge flow were measured. The results indicated that the abnormal behavior of thermal physical quantities, HRR, and combustion efficiency occurred because fuel that was not burned inside the compartment did not reach the lower combustion limit even outside the compartment and was discharged. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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12 pages, 2469 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Thermal Radiation in Bed Mattresses

by Kye-Won Park, Masayuki Mizuno, Chang-Geun Cho and Jong-Jin Jeong

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(21), 11099; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app122111099 - 02 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1203

Abstract

The population density of cities has been increasing with time and the development of industry. Building fires in large cities with high population density cause extensive human and property damage. To prevent such damage, the characteristics of flames such as the thermal radiation and intensity of the fire source must be considered when designing building structures. However, the consideration of these factors is practically inadequate. Accordingly, in this study, when a mattress was ignited in an open environment at a different installation height (0–515 mm), the measurements from a heat flux meter and the calculated thermal radiation were compared, and a comparative analysis was conducted using the existing prediction formulas by researchers described in ISO 24678-7. We examined the fire risk of mattresses according to the mattress installation height. As a result, the fire risk of the mattress was confirmed according to the mattress installation height; upon comparing the experimental and calculated values for radiant heat, it was found to be necessary to estimate the radiant heat using a calculation method that applies the configuration factor differently depending on the change in the flame shape. In addition, as a result of substituting the experimental value into the calculation method of ISO 24678-7 (a method for estimating the radiant heat of liquid combustibles), the experimental value and the calculated value were found to be significantly different. Therefore, similar to ISO 24678-7 for the radiation heat estimation method for “liquid combustibles”, an international standard for establishing the radiation heat estimation method for “solid combustible materials” as a standard was also required for a reasonable analysis of the fire safety phenomenon of solid materials, such as bed mattresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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17 pages, 6778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting the Fire Source Location by Using the Pipe Hole Network in Aspirating Smoke Detection System

by Young Man Lee, Ha Thien Khieu, Dong Woo Kim, Ji Tae Kim and Hong Sun Ryou

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(6), 2801; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12062801 - 09 Mar 2022

Viewed by 2702

Abstract

The aspirating smoke detector (ASD) is one of the most critical pieces of equipment for detecting smoke in a protected area when a fire occurs. It has more advantages than a conventional smoke detector because it can be used in extreme conditions, such as cold storage facilities or hot aisle containment areas. ASD uses a fan to draw air from the protected area into the pipe network system via pipe holes. The sucked air is transported into the sensing chamber to detect smoke. If the obscuration in the sensing chamber is greater than the setpoint, the ASD will sound an alarm so that people realize there is a fire. For this reason, investigating the effect of the pipe hole network on obscuration in the ASD is critical. In this study, a Pipe Hole Network Program was developed to consider the pipe flow parameter. A numerical study based on the program and an experimental study was performed. The results showed that the numerical results had the same trend as the experimental study. The further the location of the fire source was, the lower the obscuration was. In addition, the correlation between the obscuration parameter and the fire source distance was also derived. It could be used to predict the fire source location in the aspirating smoke detection system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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16 pages, 3813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of External Heat Flux and Exhaust Flow Rate on CO and Soot Yields of Acrylic in a Cone Calorimeter

by Sun-Yeo Mun, Jae-Ho Cho and Cheol-Hong Hwang

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(13), 5942; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11135942 - 26 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2039

Abstract

The effects of changes in irradiance level (external heat flux), exhaust flow rate, and hood height on CO and soot yield were examined using a cone calorimeter. Black acrylic, having similar constituents as polymethyl methacrylate, was used as a combustible, and external heat fluxes ranging from 15 to 65 kW/m² were considered. Both auto and spark ignitions were applied as ignition methods. The difference in auto and spark ignition methods had no effect on CO and soot yields, or on the mass loss rate (MLR), heat release rate (HRR), and effective heat of combustion (EHC), which are global parameters of fire. As the external heat flux increased, the mean MLR and HRR linearly increased while the EHC remained constant. When the external heat flux increased, the mean mass flow rates of CO and CO₂ had a directly proportional relationship with the mean MLR. Consequently, CO and CO₂ yields remained constant regardless of the external heat flux. In contrast, the mean mass flow rate and mean MLR of soot were linearly proportional as opposed to directly proportional, and the soot yield thus increased linearly with external heat flux. Variations in the exhaust flow rate and hood height, which can alter the velocity and temperature fields in post-flame and plume regions, had almost no impact on CO and soot yields, as well as on MLR and HRR. The results of this study are expected to provide improved insight into conventional approaches on the recognition of CO and soot yields as unique properties of each combustible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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24 pages, 7545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fire Performance of Self-Tapping Screws in Tall Mass-Timber Buildings

by Mathieu Létourneau-Gagnon, Christian Dagenais and Pierre Blanchet

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3579; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11083579 - 16 Apr 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4761

Abstract

Building elements are required to provide sufficient fire resistance based on requirements set forth in the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC). Annex B of the Canadian standard for wood engineering design (CSA O86-19) provides a design methodology to calculate the structural fire-resistance of large cross-section timber elements. However, it lacks at providing design provisions for connections. The objectives of this study are to understand the fire performance of modern mass timber fasteners such as self-tapping screws, namely to evaluate their thermo-mechanical behavior and to predict their structural fire-resistance for standard fire exposure up to two hours, as would be required for tall buildings in Canada. The results present the great fire performance of using self-tapping screws under a long time exposure on connections in mass timber construction. The smaller heated area of the exposed surface has limited thermal conduction along the fastener’s shanks and maintained their temperature profiles relatively low for two hours of exposure. Based on the heat-affected area, the study presents new design principles to determine the residual length of penetration that would provide adequate load-capacity of the fastener under fire conditions. It also allows determining safe fire-resistance values for unprotected fasteners in mass timber construction exposed up to two hours of standard fire exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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18 pages, 6135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Discharge Area and Atomizing Gas Type in Full Cone Twin-Fluid Atomizer on Extinguishing Performance of Heptane Pool Fire under Two Heat Release Rate Conditions in an Enclosed Chamber

by Dong Hwan Kim, Chi Young Lee and Chang Bo Oh

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(7), 3247; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11073247 - 05 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1717

Abstract

In this study, the effects of discharge area and atomizing gas type in a twin-fluid atomizer on heptane pool fire-extinguishing performance were investigated under the heat release rate conditions of 1.17 and 5.23 kW in an enclosed chamber. Large and small full cone twin-fluid atomizers were prepared. Nitrogen and air were used as atomizing gases. With respect to the droplet size of water mist, as the water and air flow rates decreased and increased, respectively, the Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of the water mist decreased. The SMD of large and small atomizers were in the range of approximately 12–60 and 12–49 μm, respectively. With respect to the discharge area effect, the small atomizer exhibited a shorter extinguishing time, lower peak surface temperature, and higher minimum oxygen concentration than the large atomizer. Furthermore, it was observed that the effect of the discharge area on fire-extinguishing performance is dominant under certain flow rate conditions. With respect to the atomizing gas type effect, nitrogen and air appeared to exhibit nearly similar extinguishing times, peak surface temperatures, and minimum oxygen concentrations under most flow rate conditions. Based on the present and previous studies, it was revealed that the effect of atomizing gas type on fire-extinguishing performance is dependent on the relative positions of the discharged flow and fire source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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32 pages, 38873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fire Safety Risk Analysis of Conventional Submarines

by Aidan Depetro, Grant Gamble and Khalid Moinuddin

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2631; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11062631 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7738

Abstract

Conventional (diesel-electric) submarines can provide improved stealth compared to nuclear submarines once submerged. This is because nuclear submarines are generally larger and are required to operate their nuclear reactors at all times, unlike diesel-electric submarines which are generally smaller and can run exclusively on batteries when submerged which generally requires fewer moving parts. These characteristics normally result in a smaller acoustic, thermal and magnetic signature which afford diesel-electric submarines greater stealth when submerged. However, the current underwater range and endurance is limited by the energy storage or generation for submerged operation. The application of emerging energy storage technology seeks to address this limitation and provide significant tactical and operational advantages to the conventional submarine operator. From a fire safety perspective, the potential addition of technologies such as rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) systems and increasingly sophisticated electronic equipment dramatically changes the risk space in an already challenging and unforgiving underwater environment. This study reviews the functions, failure modes and maturity of emerging technologies that have serious submarine fire safety implications. A semi-quantitative assessment of the fire risk associated with potential large future conventional submarine design options for batteries and AIP is provided. This assessment concludes that lithium-ion batteries pose the greatest challenge with regard to integration into conventional submarines without compromising reliability or safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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52 pages, 17027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analyses of Human and Organizational Risks in Fire Safety Systems for High-Rise Residential Buildings with Probabilistic T-H-O-Risk Methodology

by Samson Tan, Darryl Weinert, Paul Joseph and Khalid Moinuddin

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2590; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11062590 - 14 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2053

Abstract

Given that existing fire risk models often ignore human and organizational errors (HOEs) ultimately leading to underestimation of risks by as much as 80%, this study employs a technical-human-organizational risk (T-H-O-Risk) methodology to address knowledge gaps in current state-of-the-art probabilistic risk analysis (PRA) for high-rise residential buildings with the following goals: (1) Develop an improved PRA methodology to address concerns that deterministic, fire engineering approaches significantly underestimate safety levels that lead to inaccurate fire safety levels. (2) Enhance existing fire safety verification methods by incorporating probabilistic risk approach and HOEs for (i) a more inclusive view of risk, and (ii) to overcome the deterministic nature of current verification methods. (3) Perform comprehensive sensitivity and uncertainty analyses to address uncertainties in numerical estimates used in fault tree/event trees, Bayesian network and system dynamics and their propagation in a probabilistic model. (4) Quantification of human and organizational risks for high-rise residential buildings which contributes towards a policy agenda in the direction of a sustainable, risk-based regulatory regime. This research contributes to the development of the next-generation building codes and risk assessment methodologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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19 pages, 6612 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Experimental Study on Delaying the Failure Time of In-Service Cables in Trays by Using Fire-Retardant Coatings

by Feng Jiang, Jianyong Liu, Wei Yuan, Jianbo Yan, Lin Wang and Dong Liang

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2521; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11062521 - 11 Mar 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1835

Abstract

Improving the fire resistance of the key cables connected to firefighting and safety equipment is of great importance. Based on the engineering practice of an oil storage company, this study proposes a modification scheme that entails spraying fire-retardant coatings on the outer surface of a cable tray to delay the failure times of the cables in the tray. To verify the effect, 12 specimens were processed using five kinds of fire-retardant coatings and two kinds of fire-resistant cotton to coat the cable tray. The specimens were installed in the vertical fire resistance test furnace. For the ISO 834 standard fire condition, a fire resistance test was carried out on the specimens. The data for the surface temperature and the insulation resistance of the cables in trays were collected, and the fireproof effect was analyzed. The results showed that compared with the control group, the failure time of the cable could be delayed by 1.57–14.86 times, and the thicker the fire-retardant coatings were, the better the fireproof effect was. In general, the fire protection effect of the fire-retardant coating was better than that of the fire-resistant cotton. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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31 pages, 6540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Technical, Human, and Organizational Risks on Reliability of Fire Safety Systems in High-Rise Residential Buildings—Applications of an Integrated Probabilistic Risk Assessment Model

by Samson Tan, Darryl Weinert, Paul Joseph and Khalid Moinuddin

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(24), 8918; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app10248918 - 14 Dec 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2508

Abstract

The current paper presents an application of an alternative probabilistic risk assessment methodology that incorporates technical, human, and organizational risks (T-H-O-Risk) using Bayesian network (BN) and system dynamics (SD) modelling. Seven case studies demonstrate the application of this holistic approach to the designs of high-rise residential buildings. An incremental risk approach allows for quantification of the impact of human and organizational errors (HOEs) on different fire safety systems. The active systems considered are sprinklers, building occupant warning systems, smoke detectors, and smoke control systems. The paper presents detailed results from T-H-O-Risk modelling for HOEs and risk variations over time utilizing the SD modelling to compare risk acceptance in the seven case studies located in Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore, and UK. Results indicate that HOEs impact risks in active systems up to ~33%. Large variations are observed in the reliability of active systems due to HOEs over time. SD results indicate that a small behavioral change in ’risk perception’ of a building management team can lead to a very large risk to life variations over time through the self-reinforcing feedback loops. The quantification of difference in expected risk to life due to technical, human, and organizational risks for seven buildings for each of 16 trial designs is a novel aspect of this study. The research is an important contribution to the development of the next generation building codes and risk assessment methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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10 pages, 1814 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Influences of Sub-Atmospheric Pressure on Upward Flame Spread over Flexible Polyurethane Foam Board with Multiple Inclinations

by Ran Tu, Xin Ma, Yi Zeng, Xuejin Zhou and Qixing Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(20), 7117; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app10207117 - 13 Oct 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1798

Abstract

Fire propagation and burning characteristics of upward flame spread over flexible polyurethane (FPU) foam board were investigated under coupling effects of pressure and orientation. As a further comparative research of our previous work, three pressures (70, 85 and 100 kPa) and four fuel surface inclination angles (0°, 30°, 60°, 90°) were applied, respectively, as before, to study the variation of typical parameters including flame spread rate (FSR), burning rate, heat transfer components, flame length, etc. First, a phenomenological interpretation was taken to show the special spreading process with melting flow combustion and flash burning observed. Second, an overall theoretical analysis was proposed to reveal the individual or coupling effects of pressure and inclined burning surface on spreading behavior. A semi-quantitative correlation was developed and formulated to show the tendency of FSR as a function of pressure, inclination and other burning parameters, which was validated by data in paper. Meanwhile, comparison of detailed differences between upward and downward spread was conducted to give a full insight on FPU fire development. At last, comprehensive discussions of coupling effects on variation of spreading characteristics and heat transfer mechanisms were performed based on fire dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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Review

Jump to: Research

29 pages, 15389 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Experimental and Numerical Studies of Lithium Ion Battery Fires

by Matt Ghiji, Shane Edmonds and Khalid Moinuddin

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(3), 1247; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11031247 - 29 Jan 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6897

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are used extensively worldwide in a varied range of applications. However, LIBs present a considerable fire risk due to their flammable and frequently unstable components. This paper reviews experimental and numerical studies to understand parametric factors that have the greatest influence on the fire risks associated with LIBs. The LIB chemistry and the state of charge (SOC) are shown to have the greatest influence on the likelihood of a LIB transitioning into thermal runaway (TR) and releasing heats which can be cascaded to cause TR in adjacent cells. The magnitude of the heat release rate (HRR) is quantified to be used as a numerical model input parameter (source term). LIB chemistry, the SOC, and incident heat flux are proven to influence the magnitude of the HRR in all studies reviewed. Therefore, it may be conjectured that the most critical variables in addressing the overall fire safety and mitigating the probability of TR of LIBs are the chemistry and the SOC. The review of numerical modeling shows that it is quite challenging to reproduce experimental results with numerical simulations. Appropriate boundary conditions and fire properties as input parameters are required to model the onset of TR and heat transfer from thereon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Technology in Fire Science and Engineering)

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