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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "F: Electrical Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 23964

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Adam Dyśko

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Guest Editor

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Interests: power system protection; distributed generation; system stability and control; microgrids; islanding detection; islanded operation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Dimitrios Tzelepis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Interests: power system protection and control; fault location; HVDC transmission; intelligent systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The generation of electrical energy has been undergoing a series of dramatic changes in recent years, motivated mainly by the commitment to reduce CO₂ emissions. We have seen a massive deployment of renewables, an increasing share of DC electricity transmission and distribution, and simultaneous continuing reduction of conventional synchronous generation. This poses a wide range of technical and economic challenges to the existing power systems, including the provision of dependable and secure protection at all voltage levels.

With this Special Issue, we would like to draw special attention to those protective solutions and ideas which can best support future power systems, and thus facilitate the continuing decarbonization of electrical energy generation. Rapid technological advances in many disciplines have created new opportunities for developing solutions which were not possible (or very costly) in the past. The development and increased availability of reliable high-bandwidth communications; high-efficiency real-time processing systems; new signal processing algorithms; and the development of advanced measurement and sensing technologies are but a few examples of possible areas of innovation from which the protective systems could benefit.

Therefore, both conventional and unconventional interdisciplinary solutions are welcome, including adaptive and/or active methods. We also encourage contributions covering systematic, realistic assessment of the existing protection system performance, in particular, evaluating how protection effectiveness can be affected by the current and anticipated changes in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. The influencing factors could include increased penetration of inverter-connected renewables; the changing nature of loads; new electrical grid architectures; the impact of EV chargers; and many others. Such studies can be based either on real experience in the field or achieved through detailed simulation.

This Issue is open, but not limited, to contributions in the following focus areas:

Protection in microgrids and islanded systems;
Islanding detection;
Protection of HVDC grids;
Protection of other DC systems, including hybrid AC/DC;
Protection of convention al and hybrid feeders, including superconducting transmission;
System integrity and wide area protection, including load shedding;
Protection performance and testing;
Fault level estimation, including real-time fault level monitoring;
Fault location.

Dr. Adam Dyśko
Dr. Dimitrios Tzelepis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

islanding detection
microgrids and islanded systems
HVDC grids
hybrid AC/DC systems
superconducting transmission
hybrid feeders
active protection
adaptive protection
unconventional sensing systems
fault level estimation
fault location

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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2 pages, 150 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Protection of Future Electricity Systems

by Adam Dyśko and Dimitrios Tzelepis

Energies 2022, 15(3), 704; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15030704 - 19 Jan 2022

Viewed by 1057

Abstract

The electrical energy industry is undergoing dramatic changes; the massive deployment of renewables, an increasing share of DC networks at transmission and distribution levels, and at the same time, a continuing reduction in conventional synchronous generation, all contribute to a situation where a [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

Research

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12 pages, 5376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Zero Crossing Hybrid Bidirectional DC Circuit Breaker for HVDC Transmission Systems

by Geon Kim, Jin Sung Lee, Jin Hyo Park, Hyun Duck Choi and Myoung Jin Lee

Energies 2021, 14(5), 1349; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14051349 - 02 Mar 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2151

Abstract

With the increasing demand for renewable energy power generation systems, high-power DC transmission technology is drawing considerable attention. As a result, stability issues associated with high power DC transmission have been highlighted. One of these problems is the fault current that appears when a fault occurs in the transmission line. If the fault current flows in the transmission line, it has a serious adverse effect on the rectifier stage, inverter stage and transmission line load. This makes the transmission technology less reliable and can lead to secondary problems such as fire. Therefore, fault current must be managed safely. DC circuit breaker technology has been proposed to solve this problem. However, conventional technologies generally do not take into account the effects of fault current on the transmission line, and their efficiency is relatively low. The purpose of this study is to introduce an improved DC circuit breaker that uses a blocking inductor to minimize the effect of fault current on the transmission line. It also uses a ground inductor to efficiently manage the LC resonant current and dissipate residual current. DC circuit breakers minimize adverse effects on external elements and transmission lines because the use of elements placed on each is distinct. All of these processes are precisely verified by conducting simulation under 200 MVA (±100 kV) conditions based on the VSC-based HVDC transmission link. In addition, the mechanism was explained by analyzing the simulation results to increase the reliability of the circuit in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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15 pages, 6035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Experimental Study of Lightning Stroke to BIPV Modules

by Xiaoyan Bian, Yao Zhang, Qibin Zhou, Ting Cao and Bengang Wei

Energies 2021, 14(3), 748; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14030748 - 01 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2109

Abstract

Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) modules are a new type of photovoltaic (PV) modules that are widely used in distributed PV stations on the roof of buildings for power generation. Due to the high installation location, BIPV modules suffer from lightning hazard greatly. In order to evaluate the risk of lightning stroke and consequent damage to BIPV modules, the studies on the lightning attachment characteristics and the lightning energy withstand capability are conducted, respectively, based on numerical and experimental methods in this paper. In the study of lightning attachment characteristics, the numerical simulation results show that it is easier for the charges to concentrate on the upper edge of the BIPV metal frame. Therefore, the electric field strength at the upper edge is enhanced to emit upward leaders and attract the lightning downward leaders. The conclusion is verified through the long-gap discharge experiment in a high voltage lab. From the experimental study of multi-discharge in the lab, it is found that the lightning interception efficiency of the BIPV module is improved by 114% compared with the traditional PV modules. In the study of lightning energy withstand capability, a thermoelectric coupling model is established. With this model, the potential, current and temperature can be calculated in the multi-physical field numerical simulation. The results show that the maximum temperature of the metal frame increases by 16.07 °C when 100 kA lightning current flows through it and does not bring any damage to the PV modules. The numerical results have a good consistency with the experimental study results obtained from the 100 kA impulse current experiment in the lab. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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20 pages, 5808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protection Method Based on Wavelet Entropy for MMC-HVDC Overhead Transmission Lines

by Weibo Huang, Guomin Luo, Mengxiao Cheng, Jinghan He, Zhao Liu and Yuhong Zhao

Energies 2021, 14(3), 678; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14030678 - 28 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1536

Abstract

Recent technological developments in modular multilevel converter-based high-voltage direct current (MMC-HVDC) transmission systems have shown significant advantages over the traditional HVDC and two-level voltage source converter (VSC) transmission systems. However, there are a lack of studies on the protection methods for MMC-HVDC overhead lines where the protection method should be able to provide a fast and accurate response and be able to identify lightning strikes. In this paper, a wavelet entropy-based protection method is proposed. Due to the capability of revealing time–frequency distribution features, the proposed protection method combines wavelet and entropy to identify the time–frequency characteristics of different faults. Simulation results show that the proposed method can accurately and quickly determine the types of faults or disturbances with appropriate noise tolerance. In addition, the impact of the ground resistor and fault distance on the performance of the proposed method is studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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19 pages, 5485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Information Fusion-Based Hierarchical Power Generation-Side Protection System

by Xianggen Yin, Yikai Wang, Jian Qiao, Wen Xu, Xin Yin, Lin Jiang and Wei Xi

Energies 2021, 14(2), 327; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14020327 - 08 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1481

Abstract

With renewable power sources and new topology structures being widely introduced into the power system, the current local information-based power generation-side protection cannot fully guarantee the protection performance and the safety coordination with the power grid. This paper proposes an improved hierarchical protection system on the power generation-side. The proposed system takes advantage of the fusion of multi-information provided by the system, station and local layers. The system layer provides the information such as system voltage control and power regulation demand, so that the generation-side protection and control system can adapt to the system operation mode and power regulation demand. The station layer realizes the coordination of the protection principle and action strategy among the related units through information interaction with the power grid, the automatic control system and the local layer protection. The local layer introduces the condition monitoring information and more abundant protection information to enhance the protection performance and master the generation units’ safety condition. To illustrate the hierarchical protection system construction method and actual application mode, the multi-information fusion-based comprehensive local layer protection method and the multi-generators information fusion-based hierarchical protection method are taken as examples. Case analysis shows that the proposed methods can reflect more slight internal fault forms and can adaptively determine the protection action characteristic and tripping strategy according to the system operating conditions and other generators’ fault conditions, which effectively improve the protection sensitivity and coordination capability. To provide reference and inspiration for follow-up research, the hierarchical protection system construction mode, communication technology and research approaches of new protection methods are further pointed out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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24 pages, 11237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling and Fault Current Characterization of Superconducting Cable with High Temperature Superconducting Windings and Copper Stabilizer Layer

by Eleni Tsotsopoulou, Adam Dyśko, Qiteng Hong, Abdelrahman Elwakeel, Mariam Elshiekh, Weijia Yuan, Campbell Booth and Dimitrios Tzelepis

Energies 2020, 13(24), 6646; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13246646 - 16 Dec 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2474

Abstract

With the high penetration of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in power systems, the short-circuit levels have changed, creating the requirement for altering or upgrading the existing switchgear and protection schemes. In addition, the continuous increase in power (accounting both for generation and demand) has imposed, in some cases, the need for the reinforcement of existing power system assets such as feeders, transformers, and other substation equipment. To overcome these challenges, the development of superconducting devices with fault current limiting capabilities in power system applications has been proposed as a promising solution. This paper presents a power system fault analysis exercise in networks integrating Superconducting Cables (SCs). This studies utilized a validated model of SCs with second generation High Temperature Superconducting tapes (2G HTS tapes) and a parallel-connected copper stabilizer layer. The performance of the SCs during fault conditions has been tested in networks integrating both synchronous and converter-connected generation. During fault conditions, the utilization of the stabilizer layer provides an alternative path for transient fault currents, and therefore reduces heat generation and assists with the protection of the cable. The effect of the quenching phenomenon and the fault current limitation is analyzed from the perspective of both steady state and transient fault analysis. This paper also provides meaningful insights into SCs, with respect to fault current limiting features, and presents the challenges associated with the impact of SCs on power systems protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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17 pages, 1688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Inverse-Time Over-Current Protection Method for a Microgrid with Optimized Acceleration and Coordination

by Liang Ji, Zhe Cao, Qiteng Hong, Xiao Chang, Yang Fu, Jiabing Shi, Yang Mi and Zhenkun Li

Energies 2020, 13(21), 5726; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215726 - 02 Nov 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2006

Abstract

This paper presents an improved inverse-time over-current protection method based on the compound fault acceleration factor and the beetle antennae search (BAS) optimization method for a microgrid. The proposed method can not only significantly increase the operation speed of the inverse-time over-current protection but also improve the protection coordination by considering the possible influential factors in terms of microgrid operation modes, distributed generation (DG) integration status, fault types, and positions, which are marked as the most challenging problems for over-current protection of a microgrid. In this paper, a new Time Dial Setting (TDS) of inverse-time protection is developed by applying a compound fault acceleration factor, which can notably accelerate the speed of protection by using low-voltage and short-circuit impedance during the fault. In order to improve the protection coordination, the BAS algorithm is then used to optimize the protection parameters of the pick-up current, TDS, and the inverse time curve shape coefficient. Finally, case studies and various evaluations based on DIgSILENT/Power Factory are carried out to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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15 pages, 2274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Overhead Transmission Lines Auto-Reclosing Based on Hilbert–Huang Transform

by Arman Ghaderi Baayeh and Navid Bayati

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5416; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13205416 - 16 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2254

Abstract

This paper presents a reliable and fast index to detect the instant of arc extinction for adaptive single-pole automatic reclosing (ASPAR). The proposed method is a simple technique for ASPAR on shunt compensated transmission lines using the Hilbert–Huang Transform (HHT). The HHT method is a combination of the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) and the Hilbert transform (HT). The first intrinsic mode function (IMF1) decomposed by EMD, which contains high frequencies of the faulty phase voltage, was used to calculate the proposed index. HT calculates the first IMF spectrum in the time-frequency domain. The presented index is the sum of all frequency contents below 55 Hz, which remains very low until the fault clearance. The proposed method uses a global threshold level and therefore no adjustment is needed for different transmission systems. This method is effective for various system configurations including different fault locations, line loading, and various shunt reactor configurations, designs, compensation rates, and placement. The performance of the method was verified using 324 test cases simulated in electromagnetic transient program (EMTP) related to a 345 kV transmission line. For all the test cases, the algorithm successfully operated with an average reclosing time delay of 32 ms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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31 pages, 9237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Protection for Radial AC Microgrid Using IEC 61850 Communication Standard: Algorithm Proposal Using Offline Simulations

by Aushiq Ali Memon and Kimmo Kauhaniemi

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5316; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13205316 - 13 Oct 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4365

Abstract

The IEC 61850 communication standard is getting popular for application in electric power substation automation. This paper focuses on the potential application of the IEC 61850 generic object-oriented substation event (GOOSE) protocol in the AC microgrid for adaptive protection. The focus of the paper is to utilize the existing low-voltage ride through characteristic of distributed generators (DGs) with a reactive power supply during faults and communication between intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) at different locations for adaptive overcurrent protection. The adaptive overcurrent IEDs detect the faults with two different preplanned settings groups: lower settings for the islanded mode and higher settings for the grid-connected mode considering limited fault contributions from the converter-based DGs. Setting groups are changed to lower values quickly using the circuit breaker status signal (XCBR) after loss-of-mains, loss-of-DG or islanding is detected. The methods of fault detection and isolation for two different kinds of communication-based IEDs (adaptive/nonadaptive) are explained for three-phase faults at two different locations. The communication-based IEDs take decisions in a decentralized manner, using information about the circuit breaker status, fault detection and current magnitude comparison signals obtained from other IEDs. However, the developed algorithm can also be implemented with the centralized system. An adaptive overcurrent protection algorithm was evaluated with PSCAD (Power Systems Computer Aided Design) simulations, and results were found to be effective for the considered fault cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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14 pages, 2841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Local Protection and Local Action Strategy of DC Grid Fault Protection

by Jingqiu Yu, Zheren Zhang and Zheng Xu

Energies 2020, 13(18), 4795; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13184795 - 14 Sep 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1668

Abstract

Fast detection and isolation of direct current (DC) faults are key issues for DC grids. Therefore, it is very necessary to study the fault protection principle for DC grids. This paper firstly presents the main difficulties in DC fault protection. Then, a local protection and local action strategy for isolating the DC faults is proposed. To illustrate the performance of the proposed protection strategy, a four-terminal DC grid with the hybrid high voltage direct current (HVDC) circuit breakers (HVDC CBs) is constructed in the time-domain simulation software PSCAD/EMTDC as the test system. The systematical comparison between the ordinary protection strategy and the proposed strategy is carried out. The protection selectivity of the proposed local detection and local action strategy is thoroughly studied through complete DC line fault scanning of the test system. The simulation results show that the proposed strategy is of high protection selectivity and speed. In addition, the current rating and the voltage of HVDC CB could be greatly reduced with the proposed strategy, which proves the economic benefits of the proposed strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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20 pages, 12491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decentralized Plug-and-Play Protection Scheme for Low Voltage DC Grids

by Nils H. van der Blij, Pavel Purgat, Thiago B. Soeiro, Laura M. Ramirez-Elizondo, Matthijs T. J. Spaan and Pavol Bauer

Energies 2020, 13(12), 3167; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13123167 - 18 Jun 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1693

Abstract

Since the voltages and currents in dc grids do not have a natural zero-crossing, the protection of these grids is more challenging than the protection of conventional ac grids. Literature presents several unit and non-unit protection schemes that rely on communication, or knowledge about the system’s topology and parameters in order to achieve selective protection in these grids. However, communication complicates fast fault detection and interruption, and a system’s parameters are subject to uncertainty and change. This paper demonstrates that, in low voltage dc grids, faults propagate fast through the grid and interrupted inductive currents commutate to non-faulted sections of the grid, which both can cause circuit breakers in non-faulted sections to trip. A decentralized plug-and-play protection scheme is proposed that ensures selectivity via an augmented solid-state circuit breaker topology and by utilizing the proposed time-current characteristic. It is experimentally shown that the proposed scheme provides secure and selective fault interruption for radial and meshed low voltage dc grids under various conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection of Future Electricity Systems)

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