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Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2022) | Viewed by 29678

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Elisabetta Baldi

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Guest Editor

Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy
Interests: sperm biology; semen analysis; sperm DNA fragmentation; sperm physiology; sperm acrosome reaction; male infertility
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Sara Marchiani

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Guest Editor

Sexual Medicine and Andrology Unit, Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
Interests: reproductive biology; reproductive endocrinology; sperm cryopreservation; semen analysis; sperm DNA fragmentation; prostate cancer
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Lara Tamburrino

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Guest Editor

Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy
Interests: reproductive biology; sperm biology; sperm DNA fragmentation; sperm ion channels, semen analysis; prostate cancer
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

For this Special Issue of the International Journal of Molecular Sciences, we invite you to contribute either an original research article or a review article on the topic “Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa”. Male infertility affects 7% of the global population. Semen analysis is currently considered a key tool in routine assessment; however, it is poorly predictive of fertility status and does not evaluate the underlying molecular mechanisms. Furthermore, at present, there are only a few pharmacological treatments available and clinicians must rely on assisted reproduction to treat male infertility. For such reasons, it is mandatory for the scientific community to identify new sperm biomarkers/pharmacological targets through a deep characterization of the molecular pathways involved in sperm functions (spermatogenesis, epididymal maturation, capacitation, hyperactivation, etc.) that are necessary for reaching and fertilizing the oocyte, as well as sperm dysfunctions (DNA fragmentation, oxidative stress, chromatin alterations, etc.) that compromise such processes. Thanks to the currently available high-throughput technologies coupled with bioinformatic analysis, genetic and epigenetic sperm modifications, proteins and their post-translational modifications, and the metabolism and its products, the signaling pathways governing sperm functions can be deeply investigated. In addition, studying the relationship between spermatozoa and the genital tract microenvironment and its possible role in couple infertility also appears promising. Articles aimed at a multidisciplinary investigation of the different molecular aspects of sperm biology, through both in vivo and in vitro studies, are welcome.

Dr. Elisabetta Baldi
Dr. Sara Marchiani
Dr. Lara Tamburrino
Guest Editors

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Keywords

sperm functions
sperm capacitation
sperm chemotaxis
signaling pathways
gene expression
epigenetic
proteomic
post-translational modification
metabolomic
microbiota

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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23 pages, 2516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ejaculatory Abstinence Affects the Sperm Quality in Normozoospermic Men—How Does the Seminal Bacteriome Respond?

by Eva Tvrdá, Michal Ďuračka, Filip Benko, Anton Kováčik, Daniel Lovíšek, Eliška Gálová, Jana Žiarovská, Marianna Schwarzová and Miroslava Kačániová

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(4), 3503; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24043503 - 09 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2149

Abstract

This study was designed to describe bacterial profiles of ejaculates collected following a long and short ejaculatory abstinence set in the context of changes in the conventional, oxidative, and immunological characteristics of semen. Two specimens were collected in succession from normozoospermic men (n = 51) following 2 days and 2 h, respectively. Semen samples were processed and analyzed according to the World Health Organization (WHO) 2021 guidelines. Afterwards, sperm DNA fragmentation, mitochondrial function, levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), total antioxidant capacity, and oxidative damage to sperm lipids and proteins were evaluated in each specimen. Selected cytokine levels were quantified using the ELISA method. Bacterial identification by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry revealed that samples collected following two days of abstinence presented with a higher bacterial load and diversity, and a greater prevalence of potentially uropathogenic bacteria including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. Only staphylococci and Escherichia coli remained present in specimens obtained after 2 h of abstinence. Whilst all samples accomplished the criteria set by WHO, a significantly higher motility (p < 0.05), membrane integrity (p < 0.05), mitochondrial membrane potential (p < 0.05), and DNA integrity (p < 0.0001) were detected following 2 h of ejaculatory abstinence. On the other hand, significantly higher ROS levels (p < 0.001), protein oxidation (p < 0.001), and lipid peroxidation (p < 0.01) accompanied by significantly higher concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha (p < 0.05), interleukin-6 (p < 0.01), and interferon gamma (p < 0.05) were observed in specimens collected after two days of abstinence. It may be summarized that shorter ejaculatory abstinence does not compromise sperm quality in normozoospermic men, while it contributes to a decreased occurrence of bacteria in semen which is accompanied by a lower probability of damage to spermatozoa by ROS or pro-inflammatory cytokines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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22 pages, 3683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Autophagy Marker LC3 Is Processed during the Sperm Capacitation and the Acrosome Reaction and Translocates to the Acrosome Where It Colocalizes with the Acrosomal Membranes in Horse Spermatozoa

by Ines M. Aparicio, Patricia Rojo-Domínguez, Alba Castillejo-Rufo, Fernando J. Peña and Jose A. Tapia

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(2), 937; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24020937 - 04 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1879

Abstract

Despite its importance in somatic cells and during spermatogenesis, little is known about the role that autophagy may play in ejaculated spermatozoa. Our aim was to investigate whether the molecular components of autophagy, such as microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3), are activated in stallion spermatozoa during the capacitation and acrosome reaction and if this activation could modulate these biological processes. To analyze the autophagy turnover, LC3I and LC3II proteins were assessed by western blotting, and the ratio between both proteins (LC3II/LC3I) was calculated. In somatic cells, this ratio indicates that autophagy has been activated and similar LC3 processing has been described in mammalian spermatozoa. The subcellular localization of autophagy-related proteins was assessed by immunofluorescence with specific antibodies that recognized Atg16, Beclin-1, and LC3. The colocalization of acrosomal membranes (PNA) and LC3 was studied by confocal microcopy, and the acrosome reacted cells were quantified by flow cytometry. The incubation of stallion sperm in capacitating conditions (BWW; 3 h) significantly increased LC3 processing. This increment was three to four times higher after the induction of the acrosome reaction in these cells. LC3 was mainly expressed in the head in mature ejaculated sperm showing a clear redistribution from the post-acrosomal region to the acrosome upon the incubation of sperm in capacitating conditions (BWW, 3 h). After the induction of the acrosome reaction, LC3 colocalized with the acrosome or the apical plasmalemma membranes in the head of the stallion spermatozoa. The inhibition or activation of autophagy-related pathways in the presence of autophagy activators (STF-62247) or inhibitors (E-64d, chloroquine) significantly increased LC3 processing and increased the percent of acrosome reacted cells, whereas 3-methyladenine almost completely inhibited LC3 processing and the acrosome reaction. In conclusion, we found that sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction could be regulated by autophagy components in sperm cells ex vivo by processes that might be independent of the intraluminal pH of the acrosome and dependent of LC3 lipidation. It can be speculated that, in stallion sperm, a form of noncanonical autophagy utilizes some components of autophagy machinery to facilitate the acrosome reaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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18 pages, 3709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

H4K5 Butyrylation Coexist with Acetylation during Human Spermiogenesis and Are Retained in the Mature Sperm Chromatin

by Alberto de la Iglesia, Paula Jauregi, Meritxell Jodar, Ferran Barrachina, Lukas Ded, Carme Mallofré, Leonardo Rodríguez-Carunchio, Juan Manuel Corral, Josep Lluís Ballescà, Katerina Komrskova, Judit Castillo and Rafael Oliva

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(20), 12398; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms232012398 - 17 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1931

Abstract

Male germ cells experience a drastic chromatin remodeling through the nucleo-histone to nucleo-protamine (NH-NP) transition necessary for proper sperm functionality. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of H4 Lys5, such as acetylation (H4K5ac), play a crucial role in epigenetic control of nucleosome disassembly facilitating protamine incorporation into paternal DNA. It has been shown that butyrylation on the same residue (H4K5bu) participates in temporal regulation of NH-NP transition in mice, delaying the bromodomain testis specific protein (BRDT)-dependent nucleosome disassembly and potentially marking retained nucleosomes. However, no information was available so far on this modification in human sperm. Here, we report a dual behavior of H4K5bu and H4K5ac in human normal spermatogenesis, suggesting a specific role of H4K5bu during spermatid elongation, coexisting with H4K5ac although with different starting points. This pattern is stable under different testicular pathologies, suggesting a highly conserved function of these modifications. Despite a drastic decrease of both PTMs in condensed spermatids, they are retained in ejaculated sperm, with 30% of non-colocalizing nucleosome clusters, which could reflect differential paternal genome retention. Whereas no apparent effect of these PTMs was observed associated with sperm quality, their presence in mature sperm could entail a potential role in the zygote. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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18 pages, 1805 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Possible Implications of Bacteriospermia on the Sperm Quality, Oxidative Characteristics, and Seminal Cytokine Network in Normozoospermic Men

by Eva Tvrdá, Daniel Lovíšek, Eliška Gálová, Marianna Schwarzová, Eva Kováčiková, Simona Kunová, Jana Žiarovská and Miroslava Kačániová

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(15), 8678; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23158678 - 04 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2472

Abstract

This study focused on the identification of bacterial profiles of semen in normozoospermic men and their possible involvement in changes to the sperm structural integrity and functional activity. Furthermore, we studied possible fluctuations of selected cytokines, oxidative markers, and antibacterial proteins as a result of bacterial presence in the ejaculate. Sperm motility was assessed with computer-assisted sperm analysis, while sperm apoptosis, necrosis and acrosome integrity were examined with fluorescent methods. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was quantified via luminometry, sperm DNA fragmentation was evaluated using the TUNEL protocol and chromatin-dispersion test, while the JC-1 assay was applied to evaluate the mitochondrial membrane potential. Cytokine levels were quantified with the biochip assay, whilst selected antibacterial proteins were quantified using the ELISA method. The predominant species identified by the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry were Staphylococcus hominis, Staphylococcus capitis and Micrococcus luteus. The results revealed that the sperm quality decreased proportionally to the increasing bacterial load and occurrence of conditionally pathogenic bacteria, including Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests revealed a substantial resistance of randomly selected bacterial strains to ampicillin, vancomycin, tobramycin, and tetracycline. Furthermore, an increased bacterial quantity in semen was accompanied by elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1, interleukin-2, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha as well as ROS overproduction and lipid peroxidation of the sperm membranes. Our results suggest that semen quality may be notably affected by the bacterial quantity as well as quality. It seems that bacteriospermia may be associated with inflammatory processes, oxidative stress, sperm structural deterioration, and a subsequent risk for the development of subfertility, even in normozoospermic males. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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19 pages, 3244 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Treatment of Mouse Sperm with a Non-Catalytic Mutant of PLA2G10 Reveals That PLA2G10 Improves In Vitro Fertilization through Both Its Enzymatic Activity and as Ligand of PLA2R1

by Roland Abi Nahed, Magali Dhellemmes, Christine Payré, Emilie Le Blévec, Jean-Philippe Perrier, Sylviane Hennebicq, Jessica Escoffier, Pierre F. Ray, Corinne Loeuillet, Gérard Lambeau and Christophe Arnoult

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(14), 8033; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23148033 - 21 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1665

Abstract

The group X secreted phospholipase A2 (PLA2G10) is present at high levels in mouse sperm acrosome. The enzyme is secreted during capacitation and amplifies the acrosome reaction and its own secretion via an autocrine loop. PLA2G10 also improves the rate of fertilization. In in vitro fertilization (IVF) experiments, sperm from Pla2g10-deficient mice produces fewer two-cell embryos, and the absence of PLA2G10 is rescued by adding recombinant enzymes. Moreover, wild-type (WT) sperm treated with recombinant PLA2G10 produces more two-cell embryos. The effects of PLA2G10 on mouse fertility are inhibited by sPLA₂ inhibitors and rescued by products of the enzymatic reaction such as free fatty acids, suggesting a role of catalytic activity. However, PLA2G10 also binds to mouse PLA2R1, which may play a role in fertility. To determine the relative contribution of enzymatic activity and PLA2R1 binding in the profertility effect of PLA2G10, we tested H48Q-PLA2G10, a catalytically-inactive mutant of PLA2G10 with low enzymatic activity but high binding properties to PLA2R1. Its effect was tested in various mouse strains, including Pla2r1-deficient mice. H48Q-PLA2G10 did not trigger the acrosome reaction but was as potent as WT-PLA2G10 to improve IVF in inbred C57Bl/6 mice; however, this was not the case in OF1 outbred mice. Using gametes from these mouse strains, the effect of H48Q-PLA2G10 appeared dependent on both spermatozoa and oocytes. Moreover, sperm from C57Bl/6 Pla2r1-deficient mice were less fertile and lowered the profertility effects of H48Q-PLA2G10, which were completely suppressed when sperm and oocytes were collected from Pla2r1-deficient mice. Conversely, the effect of WT-PLA2G10 was not or less sensitive to the absence of PLA2R1, suggesting that the effect of PLA2G10 is polymodal and complex, acting both as an enzyme and a ligand of PLA2R1. This study shows that the action of PLA2G10 on gametes is complex and can simultaneously activate the catalytic pathway and the PLA2R1-dependent receptor pathway. This work also shows for the first time that PLA2G10 binding to gametes’ PLA2R1 participates in fertilization optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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29 pages, 4059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Flow-Cytometric Quality Assessment of Ram Sperm Intended for Gene Banking Using Standard and Novel Fertility Biomarkers

by Jaromír Vašíček, Andrej Baláži, Andrea Svoradová, Jakub Vozaf, Linda Dujíčková, Alexander V. Makarevich, Miroslav Bauer and Peter Chrenek

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(11), 5920; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23115920 - 25 May 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4668

Abstract

Flow cytometry becomes a common method for analysis of spermatozoa quality. Standard sperm characteristics such as viability, acrosome and chromatin integrity, oxidative damage (ROS) etc. can be easily assess in any animal semen samples. Moreover, several fertility-related markers were observed in humans and some other mammals. However, these fertility biomarkers have not been previously studied in ram. The aim of this study was to optimize the flow-cytometric analysis of these standard and novel markers in ram semen. Ram semen samples from Slovak native sheep breeds were analyzed using CASA system for motility and concentration and were subsequently stained with several fluorescent dyes or specific antibodies to evaluate sperm viability (SYBR-14), apoptosis (Annexin V, YO-PRO-1, FLICA, Caspases 3/7), acrosome status (PNA, LCA, GAPDHS), capacitation (merocyanine 540, FLUO-4 AM), mitochondrial activity (MitoTracker Green, rhodamine 123, JC-1), ROS (CM-H₂DCFDA, DHE, MitoSOX Red, BODIPY), chromatin (acridine orange), leukocyte content, ubiquitination and aggresome formation, and overexpression of negative biomarkers (MKRN1, SPTRX-3, PAWP, H3K4me2). Analyzed semen samples were divided into two groups according to viability as indicators of semen quality: Group 1 (viability over 60%) and Group 2 (viability under 60%). Significant (p < 0.05) differences were found between these groups in sperm motility and concentration, apoptosis, acrosome integrity (only PNA), mitochondrial activity, ROS production (except for DHE), leukocyte and aggresome content, and high PAWP expression. In conclusion, several standard and novel fluorescent probes have been confirmed to be suitable for multiplex ram semen analysis by flow cytometry as well as several antibodies have been validated for the specific detection of ubiquitin, PAWP and H3K4me2 in ram spermatozoa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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9 pages, 1411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ACE2 Receptor and Its Isoform Short-ACE2 Are Expressed on Human Spermatozoa

by Marina Ramal-Sanchez, Chiara Castellini, Costanza Cimini, Angela Taraschi, Luca Valbonetti, Arcangelo Barbonetti, Nicola Bernabò and Barbara Barboni

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(7), 3694; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23073694 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2447

Abstract

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a protein widely expressed in numerous cell types, with different biological roles mainly related to the renin-angiotensin system. Recently, ACE2 has been in the spotlight due to its involvement in the SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. There are no data available regarding the expression of ACE2 and its short-ACE2 isoform at the protein level on human spermatozoa. Here, protein expression was demonstrated by western blot and the percentage of sperm displaying surface ACE2 was assessed by flow cytometry. Immunocytochemistry assays showed that full-length ACE2 was mainly expressed in sperm midpiece, while short ACE2 was preferentially distributed on the equatorial and post-acrosomal region of the sperm head. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the expression of protein ACE2 on spermatozoa. Further studies are warranted to determine the role of ACE2 isoforms in male reproduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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13 pages, 855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sperm Physiological Response to Female Serum—Potential New Insights into the Reproductive Incompatibility Diagnostics

by Aleksandra Łukasiewicz, Kari Huhta, Jarmo Ritari, Juha Peräsaari, Pia Allinen, Marjo Malinen, Annalaura Jokiniemi, Tanja Turunen, Jukka Partanen and Jukka Kekäläinen

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(7), 3428; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23073428 - 22 Mar 2022

Viewed by 2549

Abstract

Infertility is assumed to arise exclusively from male- and female-dependent pathological factors. However, recent studies have indicated that reproductive failure may also result from the reproductive incompatibility of the partners. Selection against such incompatibilities likely occurs via female-derived reproductive secretions, including follicular fluid (FF), that mediate gamete-level mate choice towards the sperm of specific males. To facilitate potential development of diagnostic tests for human reproductive incompatibility, we examined whether sperm physiological response to female serum indicate male–female compatibility in the presence of FF. We performed a full-factorial experiment, in which the sperm of 10 males were treated with the FF and serum of 6 healthy females. We found that sperm motility and viability in both biofluids were highly similar and that in 70% of the males, sperm serum treatment predicted male–female compatibility. We also identified male human leucocyte antigen (HLA) alleles and female (FF and serum) anti-HLA antibodies and tested whether the number of allele–antibody matches predict sperm physiological response to female fluids. However, no association was found between measured sperm traits and the number of allele–antibody matches. Overall, the present results may open novel possibilities for the future development of reproductive incompatibility tests and may pave the way towards more accurate infertility diagnostics and treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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16 pages, 1268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycoplasma genitalium Provokes Seminal Inflammation among Infertile Males

by Stanislav Tjagur, Reet Mändar, Olev Poolamets, Kristjan Pomm and Margus Punab

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(24), 13467; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms222413467 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2539

Abstract

The impact of sexually transmitted infections (STI) on male fertility is controversial. Aims: To investigate the prevalence of urethritis-associated STIs (chlamydia, gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma genitalium, trichomoniasis) among infertile males; to analyze the effect of STIs on semen parameters and blood PSA. Case-control study. Study group (n = 2000): males with fertility problems or desire for fertility check. Control group (n = 248): male partners of pregnant women. Analyses: polymerase chain reaction for STI, seminal interleukin 6 (IL-6), semen and fractionated urine, blood analyses (PSA, reproductive hormones). The prevalence of M. genitalium and chlamydia in the study group was 1.1% and 1.2%, respectively. The prevalence of chlamydia in the control group was 1.6%, while there were no M. genitalium cases. No cases with gonorrhoeae or trichomoniasis or combined infections were observed in neither group. There was a higher seminal concentration of neutrophils and IL-6 among M. genitalium positives compared with STI negatives. There was a trend toward a lower total count of spermatozoa and progressive motility among STI positives. No impact of STIs on PSA was found. The prevalence of STIs among infertile males is low. M. genitalium is associated with seminal inflammation. The impact of STIs on semen parameters deserves further investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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Review

Jump to: Research

26 pages, 1852 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Markers: A New Paradigm in the Prediction of Sperm Freezability

by Michal Ďuračka, Filip Benko and Eva Tvrdá

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(4), 3379; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24043379 - 08 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3362

Abstract

For decades now, sperm cryopreservation has been a pillar of assisted reproduction in animals as well as humans. Nevertheless, the success of cryopreservation varies across species, seasons, and latitudes and even within the same individual. With the dawn of progressive analytical techniques in the field of genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, new options for a more accurate semen quality assessment have become available. This review summarizes currently available information on specific molecular characteristics of spermatozoa that could predict their cryotolerance before the freezing process. Understanding the changes in sperm biology as a result of their exposure to low temperatures may contribute to the development and implementation of appropriate measures to assure high post-thaw sperm quality. Furthermore, an early prediction of cryotolerance or cryosensitivity may lead to the establishment of customized protocols interconnecting adequate sperm processing procedures, freezing techniques, and cryosupplements that are most feasible for the individual needs of the ejaculate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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26 pages, 690 KiB

Open AccessReview

Metabolomics of Human Semen: A Review of Different Analytical Methods to Unravel Biomarkers for Male Fertility Disorders

by Janet Blaurock, Sven Baumann, Sonja Grunewald, Jürgen Schiller and Kathrin M. Engel

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(16), 9031; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23169031 - 12 Aug 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2519

Abstract

Background: Human life without sperm is not possible. Therefore, it is alarming that the fertilizing ability of human spermatozoa is continuously decreasing. The reasons for that are widely unknown, but there is hope that metabolomics-based investigations may be able to contribute to overcoming this problem. This review summarizes the attempts made so far. Methods: We will discuss liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS), gas chromatography (GC), infrared (IR) and Raman as well as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Almost all available studies apply one of these methods. Results: Depending on the methodology used, different compounds can be detected, which is (in combination with sophisticated methods of bioinformatics) helpful to estimate the state of the sperm. Often, but not in all cases, there is a correlation with clinical parameters such as the sperm mobility. Conclusions: LC-MS detects the highest number of metabolites and can be considered as the method of choice. Unfortunately, the reproducibility of some studies is poor, and, thus, further improvements of the study designs are needed to overcome this problem. Additionally, a stronger focus on the biochemical consequences of the altered metabolite concentrations is also required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into the Biology of Spermatozoa)

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