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Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle

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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 28529

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jiankun Peng

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Guest Editor

School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Interests: energy management of new energy vehicle; eco-drving of new energy vehicle; connected automated vehicle highway

Prof. Dr. Fengyan Yi

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Guest Editor

Automotive Engineering College, Shandong Jiaotong University, Jinan 250023, China
Interests: key technologies of new energy vehicles; energy management and control
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Dawei Pi

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Guest Editor

School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
Interests: new energy vehicle system dynamics and control

Dr. Yue Wang

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Guest Editor

The School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 10084, China
Interests: intelligent connected vehicle; hybrid electric vehicle; intelligent energy management; optimal control

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The rapid development of intelligent transportation system offers great opportunities for the multi-objective optimization of new energy vehicles. Smart new energy vehicles, equipped with sensors and communication devices, have the potential to integrate traffic–vehicle–powertrain multilevel control with co-optimization technologies. However, in complex driving scenarios, multi-objectives such as driving safety and energy consumption are inherently coupled by the complex dynamic and time-varying environment. Identifying how to realize optimal control in a dynamic and time-varying complex environment has become a bottleneck restricting the development of general energy management for intelligent connected new energy vehicles.

This Special Issue calls for papers that explore the intersection of the economy-oriented optimization of smart new energy vehicles in complex driving scenarios. It aims to present original research papers as well as review articles providing new highlights and a summary of the current and emerging problems of generalized energy management. We invite authors from all fields of science that fall under the broader umbrella of the new energy vehicle, including but not limited to energy management, ecologic adaptive cruise control, and eco-driving control (in the fields of new energy vehicle control and management, in particular, energy management, ecologic adaptive cruise control, and eco-driving control).

We invite authors to submit literature reviews and original research. We particularly welcome work that addresses the interaction between energy management and eco-driving control directly. Methods can include emerging approaches (e.g., model predictive control, stochastic dynamic programming, deep learning, reinforcement learning).

The main topics of this Special Issue include, but are not limited to:

Intelligent energy management
Energy management system
Energy management of hybrid electric vehicles
Energy management of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
Energy saving shift schedule of electric vehicles
Electric vehicle fleet management and optimization
Grid-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-grid (V2G and G2V)
Ecologic adaptive cruise control
Eco-driving control
Energy-saving path planning
Power battery management
Powertrain optimal design of new energy vehicles
Cooperative energy management of automated vehicles
Model predictive control
Stochastic dynamic programming
Deep learning and reinforcement learning
Management-oriented modeling and simulation

Dr. Jiankun Peng
Prof. Dr. Fengyan Yi
Dr. Dawei Pi
Dr. Yue Wang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sustainability is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

intelligent energy management
energy management system
energy management of hybrid electric vehicles
energy management of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
energy saving shift schedule of electric vehicles
grid-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-grid (V2G and G2V)
ecologic adaptive cruise control
eco-driving control

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 8101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on an Improved Rule-Based Energy Management Strategy Enlightened by the DP Optimization Results

by Dapai Shi, Junjie Guo, Kangjie Liu, Qingling Cai, Zhenghong Wang and Xudong Qu

Sustainability 2023, 15(13), 10472; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su151310472 - 03 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 894

Abstract

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) have gradually become an important member of new energy vehicles because of the advantages of both electric and hybrid electric vehicles. A fast and effective energy management strategy can significantly improve the fuel-saving performance of vehicles. By observing the dynamic programming (DP) simulation results, it was found that the vehicle is in the charge-depleting mode, the state of charge (SOC) drops to the minimum at the end of the journey, and the SOC decreases linearly with the mileage. As such, this study proposed an improved rule-based (IRB) strategy enlightened by the DP strategy, which is different from previous rule-based (RB) strategies. Introducing the reference SOC curve and SOC adaptive adjustment, the IRB strategy ensures that the SOC decreases linearly with the driving distance, and the SOC drops to the minimum at the end of the journal, similar to the result of the DP strategy. The fuel economy of PHEV in the RB and DP energy management strategies can be considered as their worst-case and best-case scenarios, respectively. The simulation results show that the fuel consumption of the IRB strategy under the China Light-duty Vehicle Test Cycle is 3.16 L/100 km, which is 7.87% less than that of the RB strategy (3.43 L/100 km), and has reached 44.41% of the fuel-saving effect of the DP strategy (2.84 L/100 km). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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12 pages, 3649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Dynamic Impact Analysis of Prismatic Lithium-Ion Battery

by Dongchen Qin, Peizhuo Wang, Tingting Wang and Jiangyi Chen

Sustainability 2023, 15(10), 8414; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15108414 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1656

Abstract

Battery modules of new energy vehicles are frequently exposed to dynamic impacts during traffic accidents. However, current research on the mechanical safety of prismatic lithium-ion batteries (PLIBs) primarily focuses on quasi-static states, and the failure mechanism of batteries under dynamic impact remains incompletely understood. Therefore, to investigate the failure mechanism and critical failure displacement of PLIB under dynamic impacts, this study establishes a computational model of PLIB considering anisotropy based on experimental data and extends the simulation to the case of high-velocity battery collision. On this basis, the deformation feature, mechanical response, and failure mechanism of PLIB under different impact velocities are analyzed. The results show that the deformation feature of PLIB under dynamic impact differs from that under quasi-static loading. As the loading velocity increases, the inertial effect gradually becomes apparent, causing the deformation of PLIB to localize and the failure displacement to decrease. Three critical failure displacements were identified within the velocity range of 0–20 m/s. This study can serve as a reference for battery safety design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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17 pages, 3444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy for Fuel Cell Buses Based on Driving Style Recognition

by Kun He, Dongchen Qin, Jiangyi Chen, Tingting Wang, Hongxia Wu and Peizhuo Wang

Sustainability 2023, 15(10), 7781; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15107781 - 09 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1424

Abstract

Driving style has a significant effect on the operating economy of fuel cell buses (FCBs). To reduce hydrogen consumption and prolong the fuel cell life of FCBs, this paper proposes an online adaptive equivalent consumption minimum strategy (A-ECMS) based on driving style recognition. Firstly, driving data from various drivers is collected, and a standard driving cycle is created. Neural networks are then used to identify driving conditions, and three fuzzy logic recognizers are developed to identify driving styles for different driving conditions. The driving style factor is associated with the equivalent factor using an optimization algorithm that incorporates hydrogen consumption cost and fuel cell degradation cost into the objective function. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed A-ECMS can reduce equivalent hydrogen consumption, prolong fuel cell life, and result in a 6.2% reduction in total operating cost compared to the traditional method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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25 pages, 12331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Driver-Oriented Energy Management Strategy for Hybrid Heavy-Duty Off-Road Vehicles under Aggressive Transient Operating Condition

by Xu Wang, Ying Huang and Jian Wang

Sustainability 2023, 15(9), 7539; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15097539 - 04 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1251

Abstract

Hybrid heavy-duty off-road vehicles frequently experience rapid acceleration and deceleration, as well as frequent uphill and downhill motion. Consequently, the engine must withstand aggressive transients which may drastically worsen the fuel economy and even cause powertrain abnormal operation. When the engine cannot respond to the transient demand power quickly enough, the battery must compensate for the large amount of power shortage immediately, which may cause excessive battery current that adversely affects the battery safety and life span. In this paper, a nonlinear autoregressive with exogenous input neural network is used to recognize the driver’s intention and translate it into subsequent vehicle speed. Combining energy management with vehicle speed control, a co-optimization-based driver-oriented energy management strategy for manned hybrid vehicles is proposed and applied to smooth the engine power to ensure efficient operation of the engine under severe transients and, at the same time, to regulate battery current to avoid overload. Simulation and the hardware-in-the-loop test demonstrate that, compared with the filter-based energy management strategy, the proposed strategy could yield a 38.7% decrease in engine transient variation and an 8.2% decrease in fuel consumption while avoiding battery overload. Compared with a sequential-optimization-based energy management strategy, which is recognized as a better strategy than a filter-based energy management strategy, the proposed strategy can achieve a 16.2% decrease in engine transient variation and a 3.2% decrease in fuel consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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13 pages, 2695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Arrangement of Belleville Springs on Endplates Combined with Optimal Cross-Sectional Shape in PEMFC Stack Using Equivalent Beam Modeling and FEA

by Zhiming Zhang, Hui Ren, Song Hu, Xinfeng Zhang, Tong Zhang, Jiaming Zhou, Shangfeng Jiang, Tao Yu and Bo Deng

Sustainability 2022, 14(23), 15928; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su142315928 - 29 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1163

Abstract

A set of Belleville springs integrated into an endplate plays a key role in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stack, which makes the applied assembly force smoother, resulting from the absorbed vibration and thermal expansion. The appropriate arrangement of Belleville springs is important in PEMFC stack design. The aim of this study is to establish an equivalent beam model to optimize the numbers and positions of Belleville springs to minimize endplate deformation. Based on this, a finite element analysis (FEA) model of the PEMFC stack is proposed to further optimize the cross-sectional shape of the endplate. For the endplate with two, three and four groups of Belleville springs, its optimal positions correspond to

{0.17 l}_{in}

{0.27 l}_{in}

and

{0.5 l}_{in}

(l_in is the equal distance between steel belts). In addition, the low thickness should be 2/3 of the high thickness of the curved endplate for a uniform contact pressure distribution as well as the high-volume-specific power. However, the curvature radius of the endplate arc is negative to the uniformity of the contact pressure distribution, and particularly the internal cells of the PEMFC stack. This study provides a design direction for endplates combined with Belleville springs in large fuel cell stacks clamped with steel belts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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15 pages, 6808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Optimal Cross-Sectional Shapes of the PEMFC Endplates by Using a Moment of Inertia and 3D FEM Models

by Zhiming Zhang, Jun Zhang, Yapeng Shang and Tong Zhang

Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 12939; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su141912939 - 10 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1329

Abstract

The deflection of the endplate under the clamping force has a vital effect on fuel cell performance. An optimal cross-sectional shape with a high moment of inertia of the endplate is significant to maximize the bending stiffness of the fuel cell stack. Five cross-sectional shapes (rectangular, round, parabolic, rectangular + round, and rectangular + parabolic) of the typical endplates are proposed. An analytical study on the moments of inertia of the endplates is introduced and analyzed. The maximum moments of inertia of the cross-sections are obtained and displayed in a matrix in thickness and length. The statistical results show that the “rectangular + parabolic” cross-section has the advantage of wide dimensional size while maintaining a high moment of inertia. Finally, the analytical studies are validated by a finite element method (FEM) and the corresponding trends are highly agreed upon. The maximum moment of inertia of the parabolic endplate is 85.71% higher than the rectangular endplate with a thickness of 80 mm, and the corresponding contact pressure variance is 6.15% less than the rectangular endplate. The presented analytical study is significant and effective to optimize the cross-sectional shape of the endplate and provide an endplate design direction for a large fuel cell stack. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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15 pages, 3377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Flow Channel Design and Tapered Slope Effects on PEM Fuel Cell Performance

by Zhiming Zhang, Sai Wu, Huimin Miao and Tong Zhang

Sustainability 2022, 14(18), 11167; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su141811167 - 06 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1613

Abstract

High-power proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell vehicles are important for the realization of carbon neutrality in transportation. However, it is difficult to maintain enough fuel supply and quick water removal capacity at a high current density where reactant gas transportation and water concentration are directly affected by flow channel configurations. This study aims to investigate the tapered slope effects of a flow channel on fuel cell performance using a 3-D CFD model. The positive, negative, zero and hybrid tapered slopes are proposed to illustrate the fuel cell voltage, reactant gas and water vapor concentration in the flow channels. Among them, the flow channel with a positive tapered slope performs better, especially at a high current density. Then, the positive tapered slope effects are discussed, including different tapered slopes, inlet depths and widths of flow channels. The results show that the larger the tapered slope, the smaller the depth and width, and the better the fuel cell performs; the corresponding current densities are increased by a maximum of 6.53%, 12.72% and 61.13%. The outcomes stated above provide a key direction for flow channel design that can particularly achieve higher fuel cell power density at high current densities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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13 pages, 3788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heat Dissipation Enhancement Structure Design of Two-Stage Electric Air Compressor for Fuel Cell Vehicles Considering Efficiency Improvement

by Jiaming Zhou, Jie Liu, Qingqing Su, Chunxiao Feng, Xingmao Wang, Donghai Hu, Fengyan Yi, Chunchun Jia, Zhixian Fan and Shangfeng Jiang

Sustainability 2022, 14(12), 7259; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14127259 - 14 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1975

Abstract

As an auxiliary component with the largest energy consumption in the fuel cell power system, the electric air compressor is of great significance to improve the overall efficiency of the system by reducing its power consumption under the premise of meeting the cathode intake demand. In this paper, the flow state of the gas in the flow field of the fuel cell TSEAC (two-stage electric air compressor) is analyzed by simulation, and the accuracy of the simulation results is verified by experiments. Through the research on the gas compression work of the fuel cell TSEAC, it is found that the higher temperature rise of the gas during the compression process will increase the compression work, thereby reducing the efficiency of the fuel cell TSEAC. Therefore, based on the field synergy theory, this paper designs the heat dissipation structure of the TSEAC elbow. In the common working conditions of fuel cell TSEAC, micro-fin tube is an effective energy-saving structure that takes into account heat dissipation enhancement and flow resistance, and its ratio of micro-fin height to laminar bottom layer thickness ε/δ = 1.6 has the best energy-saving effect. Finally, the energy-saving effect of the micro-fin tube is verified by simulation. The load torque of the optimized fuel cell TSEAC is reduced from 1.540 N·m to 1.509 N·m, and the shaft power is reduced from 14.51 kW to 14.22 kW. Its efficiency increased by 1.9%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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16 pages, 8429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Rapid Inspection Driving Cycle for Battery Electric Vehicles Based on Operational Safety

by Zhipeng Jiao, Jian Ma, Xuan Zhao, Kai Zhang, Dean Meng and Xuebo Li

Sustainability 2022, 14(9), 5079; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14095079 - 23 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1757

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to solve the problem for battery electric vehicles of low-precision and time-consuming inspection. A novel method of driving cycle development for battery electric vehicles’ operational safety is proposed in this paper. First, three inspection items are proposed based on relevant testing standards. The inspection calculation method of operational safety is developed based on the acceleration changing rate. Then the multi-cycle inspection method with the stable pedal mode is developed, and the Gauss filtering algorithm is applied for data preprocessing. A rapid inspection driving cycle construction method based on support vector machine is proposed, and a driving cycle is built with a total time of 204 s by fusing and splicing kinematic fragments. Finally, the proposed inspection calculation method is used to validate the operational safety inspection items by tracking the established rapid inspection driving cycle based on the test bench. The results shown are those that qualified the range of acceleration changing rate for driving stability [−0.35, −0.04]. The range for gliding smoothness is [0.05, 0.09]. The range for braking coordination is [−0.04, 0.095]. The maximum RMSE between the constructed rapid inspection segments is 9%, and the maximum RMSE between the tested driving segments is 6%. Test results meet design requirements. The thresholds for operational safety inspection items are evaluated based on the test results. We set less than 0.5 as the safety threshold for driving stability. During the experiment, gliding was less than 0.1 as the safety threshold for gliding comfort, and during braking it was less than 0.1 as the safety threshold for vehicle braking coordination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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17 pages, 3879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Management Strategy for Hybrid Energy Storage Electric Vehicles Based on Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle Considering Battery Degradation

by Fengyan Yi, Dagang Lu, Xingmao Wang, Chaofeng Pan, Yuanxue Tao, Jiaming Zhou and Changli Zhao

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1214; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14031214 - 21 Jan 2022

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 4467

Abstract

The development of energy management strategy (EMS), which considers how power is distributed between the battery and ultracapacitor, can reduce the electric vehicle’s power consumption and slow down battery degradation. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to develop an EMS for hybrid energy storage electric vehicles based on Pontryagin’s minimums principle (PMP) considering battery degradation. To verify the EMS, the hybrid energy storage electric vehicle model is first established. In the meantime, the battery cycle life trials are finished in order to develop a battery degradation model. Following that, a rule-based control approach and the PMP optimization algorithm are used to allocate power in a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) in a reasonable manner. Finally, a simulation experiment under urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS) settings verifies the established EMS, and the findings reveal that the suggested EMS has a lower energy consumption rate and battery deterioration rate than the rule-based method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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12 pages, 15484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Management Strategy of a Novel Electric Dual-Motor Transmission for Heavy Commercial Vehicles Based on APSO Algorithm

by Jiajia Liang, Xiangyang Xu, Peng Dong, Tao Feng, Wei Guo and Shuhan Wang

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1163; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14031163 - 20 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1727

Abstract

With the development of electric vehicles, dual-motor transmission has become a potential alternative for automated manual transmission (AMT) due to the solution of power interruption and the improvement of energy efficiency. In this paper, a novel electric dual-motor transmission (eDMTP) for heavy commercial vehicles is proposed. Then, a 4-layer energy management strategy is developed to optimize dynamics performance and energy efficiency. Subsequently, a real vehicle operation is performed to validate the control strategy and the performance of eDMTP. The results demonstrate that the operating points of the two motors are both in and around the high-efficiency area under normal mode. This research lays the foundation for the development of a pure electric vehicle transmission system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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11 pages, 2858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Accelerated Testing of Cut-In Condition of Electric Automated Vehicles Based on Monte Carlo Simulation

by Qin Xia, Yi Chai, Haoran Lv and Hong Shu

Sustainability 2021, 13(22), 12776; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su132212776 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1735

Abstract

Electric automated vehicles are zero-emission, energy-saving, and environmentally friendly vehicles, and testing and verification is an important means to ensure their safety. Because of the scarcity of dangerous scenarios in natural driving roads, it is required to conduct accelerated tests and evaluations for electric automated vehicles. According to the scenario data of the natural road in cut-in conditions, we used the kernel density estimation method to calculate the probability distribution of the scenario parameters. Additionally, we used the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm to sample based on the probability distribution of the parameters, and the Euclidean distance was combined with the paired combination to accelerate the simulation test process. The critical scenarios were screened out by the safety indicator, and the feature distribution of the critical scenario parameters was analyzed based on the Euclidean distance clustering method, so as to design importance sampling parameters and carry out importance sampling. The study obtained the distribution characteristics of critical scenario parameters under cut-in conditions and found that the importance sampling method can accelerate the test under the condition of ensuring that the relative error is small, and the improved accelerated simulation method makes the overall calculation amount smaller. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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23 pages, 10661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interval Type-2 Fuzzy Logic Anti-Lock Braking Control for Electric Vehicles under Complex Road Conditions

by Linfeng Lv, Juncheng Wang and Jiangqi Long

Sustainability 2021, 13(20), 11531; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su132011531 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1968

Abstract

To simultaneously track the ideal slip rate and realize ideal energy recovery efficiency under different complex road conditions, an electro-hydraulic compound anti-lock braking system based on interval type-2 fuzzy logic control strategy and its corresponding braking torque allocation strategy have been developed for electric vehicles. The proposed interval type-2 fuzzy logic controller aims to calculate the ideal total braking torque by four steps, namely, fuzzification, fuzzy inference, type reduction, and defuzzification. The slip rate error and the change rate of slip rate error are utilized as inputs in the fuzzification, and then, the membership degree interval of fuzzy variables determined by the upper and lower membership functions is used to calculate the activation degree interval of different fuzzy rules in the fuzzy inference process, which enhances the anti-interference ability to external uncertainties and internal uncertainties. The braking torque allocation strategy is proposed to maintain the maximum energy recovery efficiency on the premise of safe braking. The software of MATLAB/Simulink is applied to simulate the process of anti-lock braking control under two complex road conditions. Simulation results corroborate the proposed interval type-2 fuzzy logic anti-lock braking control system can not only obtain better slip rate control effect and outstanding robustness but also achieve ideal regenerative braking energy recovery efficiency under both joint-μ and split-μ road surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies in Energy Management of New Energy Vehicle)

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