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Energies, Volume 14, Issue 13 (July-1 2021) – 351 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Water is one of the basic components for securing life on Earth, and its strategic importance is constantly growing. It is, therefore, natural to monitor its usage, whether in its drinking, industrial or waste form. Today's technologies make it possible to conduct remote readings of water consumption in the form of autonomous systems without the need to process measurements by humans. By using suitable thermoelectric generators and converters of electrical energy with storage elements, a sufficient amount of energy can also be obtained from water to ensure their proper operation. In this case, a pilot project of a real measurement system for water consumption based on the temperature difference of water pipes or ambient air was implemented. View this paper
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25 pages, 4493 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of a Storage System for a Wind Farm with Ramp-Rate Limitation
by Guglielmo D’Amico, Filippo Petroni and Salvatore Vergine
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4066; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134066 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2424
Abstract
This paper provides evidence on how the variability of the power produced by a wind farm and its revenue are affected by implementing a ramp-rate limitation strategy and by adding a storage device to the system. The wind farm receives penalties whenever the [...] Read more.
This paper provides evidence on how the variability of the power produced by a wind farm and its revenue are affected by implementing a ramp-rate limitation strategy and by adding a storage device to the system. The wind farm receives penalties whenever the ramp-rate limitations are not respected and may be supported by batteries to avoid this scenario. In this paper, we model the battery usage as a discrete time homogeneous Markov chain with rewards thanks to which it is possible to simulate the state of the charge of the battery and to calculate the amount of penalties suffered by the wind farm during any period. An application is performed considering the power produced by a hypothetical wind turbine located in Sardinia (Italy) using real wind speed data and electricity prices from a period of 10 years. We applied the concept of ramp-rate limitation on our hourly dataset, studying several limitation scenarios and battery capacities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stochastic Modeling of Wind Speed and Energy Production)
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16 pages, 5534 KiB  
Article
Circular Economy and Virtual Reality in Advanced BIM-Based Prefabricated Construction
by Timothy M. O’Grady, Nicholas Brajkovich, Roberto Minunno, Heap-Yih Chong and Gregory M. Morrison
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4065; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134065 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6097
Abstract
This paper presents a new virtual reality (VR)-based approach to advanced learnings and experiences of the circular economy (CE) in the construction industry. The approach involves incorporating game design and a building information modelling (BIM) digital twin of a purposed CE prototype building. [...] Read more.
This paper presents a new virtual reality (VR)-based approach to advanced learnings and experiences of the circular economy (CE) in the construction industry. The approach involves incorporating game design and a building information modelling (BIM) digital twin of a purposed CE prototype building. Our novel approach introduces VR environments designed to provide a visual representation of materials and components that can be reintroduced into the supply chain at the end of life and their removal procedures and material provenance. A case study methodology was applied to a purposely designed CE building, namely the Legacy Living Lab (L3). To reflect the real-life building, L3’s BIM model was combined with Unify game software to advance the literature in three key areas. First, the research investigates VR tools that will allow building designers to view and implement their strategies to advance CE design. Second, this research proposes an advanced VR tool to visualise the bill of quantities (BoQ) and material stock embedded in the studied building, further understanding concepts such as buildings as material banks. Finally, the proposed VR environment defines CE techniques implemented within the case study to be disseminated across the vast construction industry. This VR research identifies three key pillars in reducing the waste generated by the construction industry: education, documentation and visualisation. Furthermore, this paper provides a visual link between the BIM, BoQ and resiliency of the selected materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Built Environment)
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18 pages, 6656 KiB  
Article
Combustion Characteristics of Multi-Element Swirl Coaxial Jet Injectors under Varying Momentum Ratios
by Younseok So, Yeoungmin Han and Sejin Kwon
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4064; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134064 - 05 Jul 2021
Viewed by 2573
Abstract
The combustion characteristics of a staged combustion cycle engine with an oxidizer-rich preburner were experimentally studied at different momentum ratios of multi-element injectors. Propellants were simultaneously supplied as a liquid–liquid–liquid system, and an injector was designed in which a swirl coaxial jet is [...] Read more.
The combustion characteristics of a staged combustion cycle engine with an oxidizer-rich preburner were experimentally studied at different momentum ratios of multi-element injectors. Propellants were simultaneously supplied as a liquid–liquid–liquid system, and an injector was designed in which a swirl coaxial jet is sprayed. The injector burned the propellants in the inner chamber which had a temperature greater than 2000 K. To cool the combustion gas, a liquid oxidizer was supplied to the cooling channel outside the injector. To prevent the turbine blades from melting, the temperature of the combustion gas was maintained below 700 K. To confirm the combustion characteristics at different momentum ratios of the high-temperature combustion gas inside the injector and the low-temperature liquid oxidizer outside the injector, three types of injectors were designed and manufactured with different momentum ratios: MR 3.0, MR 3.3, and MR 3.7. In this study, the results of the combustion test for each type were compared for 30 s. For ORPB-A, a combustion pressure of 18.5 MPaA, fuel mass flow rate of 0.26 kg/s, oxidizer mass flow rate of 15.3 kg/s, and turbine inlet temperature of 686 K were obtained in the combustion stability period of 29.0–29.5 s. The combustion efficiency was 98% for MR 3.0 (ORPB-A), which was superior to that for other momentum ratios. In addition, during the combustion test for MR 3.0, the fluctuations in the characteristic velocity, combustion pressure, and propellant mass flow rate were low, indicating that combustion was stable. The three types of combustion instability were all less than 0.8%, thus confirming that the combustion stability was excellent. Full article
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22 pages, 2858 KiB  
Article
Asymmetry of Risk Evolution in Crude Oil Market: From the Perspective of Dual Attributes of Oil
by Yanqiong Liu, Zhenghui Li, Yanyan Yao and Hao Dong
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4063; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134063 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1683
Abstract
Investor emotional heterogeneity and oil dual attributes are the key factors that cause the asymmetry of risks in the international crude oil market. This paper uses the monthly data from April 2003 to October 2020 to identify the dynamic characteristics of oil’s commodity [...] Read more.
Investor emotional heterogeneity and oil dual attributes are the key factors that cause the asymmetry of risks in the international crude oil market. This paper uses the monthly data from April 2003 to October 2020 to identify the dynamic characteristics of oil’s commodity attribute and financial attribute, and this paper also analyzes the asymmetric characteristics of risk evolution and risk degree in the international crude oil market under the condition of oil returns heterogeneity. The empirical results show that: first, there is heterogeneity in the influence of oil attributes on the risk evolution and risk degree of the international crude oil market; second, the alternation of oil dual attributes has a significant asymmetric impact on the risk evolution of international crude oil market; third, the sudden change of international crude oil market risk caused by oil attributes is asymmetric under different oil returns trends. Based on the empirical conclusion, this paper puts forward the corresponding policy recommendations. Full article
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18 pages, 2905 KiB  
Article
Designing Cement-Based Grouting in a Rock Mass for Underground Impermeabilization
by Iñigo Escobal-Marcos, Martina-Inmaculada Álvarez-Fernández, María-Belén Prendes-Gero and Celestino González-Nicieza
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4062; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134062 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1629
Abstract
Fractured rock masses below the water table are a problem in underground excavations because of their low strength and high permeability. Nowadays, these negative connotations can be reduced with techniques such as injection of cement, microcement, or resins grouts. These materials increase the [...] Read more.
Fractured rock masses below the water table are a problem in underground excavations because of their low strength and high permeability. Nowadays, these negative connotations can be reduced with techniques such as injection of cement, microcement, or resins grouts. These materials increase the rock mass cohesion while reducing the flow of water through the discontinuities. This paper describes the work carried out to design a waterproofing screen for a three-storey underground basement located in a building near the Bilbao estuary (Northern Spain) and with problems of water seepage from the river. First, a survey of the rock mass is carried out. This survey shows the presence of highly fractured zones and the variability of the permeability as functions of the fractures. Subsequently, the effect on permeability caused by the injection of cement grouts and microcement is studied by means of two pilot injection boreholes and eight control boreholes. Finally, a behavioural model is proposed to explain the heterogeneity observed in the radius of influence of the injection. As a result, a waterproofing screen with three types of treatment is designed: An ordinary treatment with cement grouts, an intensive treatment with microcement grouts, and an isolation treatment with cement-bentonite grouts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Techniques in Underground Excavation)
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32 pages, 2712 KiB  
Review
Production of Gasolines and Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: From Fossil Raw Materials to Green Processes
by Guido Busca
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4061; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134061 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6433
Abstract
The properties and the applications of the main monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, and the three xylene isomers) and the industrial processes for their manufacture from fossil raw materials are summarized. Potential ways for their production from renewable sources with thermo-catalytic [...] Read more.
The properties and the applications of the main monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, and the three xylene isomers) and the industrial processes for their manufacture from fossil raw materials are summarized. Potential ways for their production from renewable sources with thermo-catalytic processes are described and discussed in detail. The perspectives of the future industrial organic chemistry in relation to the production of high-octane bio-gasolines and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as renewable chemical intermediates are discussed. Full article
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21 pages, 21441 KiB  
Article
Design and Research on Power Systems and Algorithms for Controlling Electric Underground Mining Machines Powered by Batteries
by Artur Kozłowski and Łukasz Bołoz
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4060; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134060 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2541
Abstract
This article discusses the work that resulted in the development of two battery-powered self-propelled electric mining machines intended for operation in the conditions of a Polish copper ore mine. Currently, the global mining industry is seeing a growing interest in battery-powered electric machines, [...] Read more.
This article discusses the work that resulted in the development of two battery-powered self-propelled electric mining machines intended for operation in the conditions of a Polish copper ore mine. Currently, the global mining industry is seeing a growing interest in battery-powered electric machines, which are replacing solutions powered by internal combustion engines. The cooperation of Mine Master, Łukasiewicz Research Network—Institute of Innovative Technologies EMAG and AGH University of Science and Technology allowed carrying out a number of works that resulted in the production of two completely new machines. In order to develop the requirements and assumptions for the designed battery-powered propulsion systems, underground tests of the existing combustion machines were carried out. Based on the results of these tests, power supply systems and control algorithms were developed and verified in a virtual environment. Next, a laboratory test stand for validating power supply systems and control algorithms was developed and constructed. The tests were aimed at checking all possible situations in which the battery gets discharged as a result of the machine’s ride or operation and when it is charged from the mine’s mains or with energy recovered during braking. Simulations of undesirable situations, such as fluctuations in the supply voltage or charging power limitation, were also carried out at the test stand. Positive test results were obtained. Finally, the power supply systems along with control algorithms were implemented and tested in the produced battery-powered machines during operational trials. The power systems and control algorithms are universal enough to be implemented in two different types of machines. Both machines were specially designed to substitute diesel machines in the conditions of a Polish ore mine. They are the lowest underground battery-powered drilling and bolting rigs with onboard chargers. The machines can also be charged by external fast battery chargers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mining Innovation)
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14 pages, 2266 KiB  
Article
Method for Determining the Utilization Rate of Thin-Deck Shearers Based on Recorded Electromotor Loads
by Marek Kęsek and Romuald Ogrodnik
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4059; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134059 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1508
Abstract
Mining machinery and equipment used in modern mining are equipped with sensors and measurement systems at the stage of their production. Measuring devices are most often components of a control system or a machine performance monitoring system. In the case of headers, the [...] Read more.
Mining machinery and equipment used in modern mining are equipped with sensors and measurement systems at the stage of their production. Measuring devices are most often components of a control system or a machine performance monitoring system. In the case of headers, the primary task of these systems is to ensure safe operation and to monitor its correctness. It is customary to collect information in very large databases and analyze it when a failure occurs. Data mining methods allow for analysis to be made during the operation of machinery and mining equipment, thanks to which it is possible to determine not only their technical condition but also the causes of any changes that have occurred. The purpose of this work is to present a method for discovering missing information based on other available parameters, which facilitates the subsequent analysis of machine performance. The primary data used in this paper are the currents flowing through the windings of four header motors. In the method, the original reconstruction of the data layout was performed using the R language function, and then the analysis of the operating states of the header was performed based on these data. Based on the rules used and determined in the analysis, the percentage structure of machine operation states was obtained, which allows for additional reporting and verification of parts of the process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mining Innovation)
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20 pages, 4270 KiB  
Article
A Cascade Proportional Integral Derivative Control for a Plate-Heat-Exchanger-Based Solar Absorption Cooling System
by Yeudiel Garcíadealva, Roberto Best, Víctor Hugo Gómez, Alejandro Vargas, Wilfrido Rivera and José Camilo Jiménez-García
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4058; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134058 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1764
Abstract
Automatic proportional integral derivative control techniques are applied in a single-stage solar absorption cooling system, showing 3.8 kW (~1 ton) cooling capacity, with a coefficient of performance of 0.6 and −4.1 °C evaporator cooling temperature. It is built with plate heat exchangers as [...] Read more.
Automatic proportional integral derivative control techniques are applied in a single-stage solar absorption cooling system, showing 3.8 kW (~1 ton) cooling capacity, with a coefficient of performance of 0.6 and −4.1 °C evaporator cooling temperature. It is built with plate heat exchangers as main components, using ammonia–water as the working mixture fluid and solar collectors as the main source of hot water. Control tuning was verified with a dynamical simulation model for a solution regarding mass flow stability and temperature control in the solar absorption cooling system. The controller improved steady thermodynamic state and time response. According to experimental cooling temperatures, the system could work in ranges of refrigeration or air-conditioning end-uses, whose operation makes this control technique an attractive option to be implemented in the solar absorption cooling system. Full article
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31 pages, 11275 KiB  
Article
Integrating Novel Microchannel-Based Solar Collectors with a Water-to-Water Heat Pump for Cold-Climate Domestic Hot Water Supply, Including Related Solar Systems Comparisons
by Mohammad Emamjome Kashan, Alan S. Fung and John Swift
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4057; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134057 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1819
Abstract
In Canada, more than 80% of energy in the residential sector is used for space heating and domestic hot water (DHW) production. This study aimed to model and compare the performance of four different systems, using solar energy as a renewable energy source [...] Read more.
In Canada, more than 80% of energy in the residential sector is used for space heating and domestic hot water (DHW) production. This study aimed to model and compare the performance of four different systems, using solar energy as a renewable energy source for DHW production. A novel microchannel (MC) solar thermal collector and a microchannel-based hybrid photovoltaic/thermal collector (PVT) were fabricated (utilizing a microchannel heat exchanger in both cases), mathematical models were created, and performance was simulated in TRNSYS software. A water-to-water heat pump (HP) was integrated with these two collector-based solar systems, namely MCPVT-HP and MCST-HP, to improve the total solar fraction. System performance was then compared with that of a conventional solar-thermal-collector-based system and that of a PV-resistance (PV-R) system, using a monocrystalline PV collector. The heat pump was added to the systems to improve the systems’ efficiency and provide the required DHW temperatures when solar irradiance was insufficient. Comparisons were performed based on the temperature of the preheated water storage tank, the PV panel efficiency, overall system efficiency, and the achieved solar fraction. The microchannel PVT-heat pump (MCPVT-HP) system has the highest annual solar fraction among all the compared systems, at 76.7%. It was observed that this system had 10% to 35% higher solar fraction than the conventional single-tank solar-thermal-collector-based system during the wintertime in a cold climate. The performance of the two proposed MC-based systems is less sensitive than the two conventional systems to collector tilt angle in the range of 45 degrees to 90 degrees. If roof space is limited, the MCPVT-HP system is the best choice, as the MCPVT collector can perform effectively when mounted vertically on the facades of high-rise residential and commercial buildings. A comparison among five Canadian cities was also performed, and we found that direct beam radiation has a great effect on overall system solar faction. Full article
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27 pages, 31328 KiB  
Article
The Spirit of Time—The Art of Self-Renovation to Improve Indoor Environment in Cultural Heritage Buildings
by Coline Senior, Alenka Temeljotov Salaj, Milena Vukmirovic, Mina Jowkar and Živa Kristl
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4056; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134056 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3092
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to explore the challenges of an old low-standard urban district with a strong historical and cultural heritage and propose more sustainable renovation solutions, acceptable for the residents and municipality. The challenges of physical renovation or refurbishment are [...] Read more.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the challenges of an old low-standard urban district with a strong historical and cultural heritage and propose more sustainable renovation solutions, acceptable for the residents and municipality. The challenges of physical renovation or refurbishment are complex due to poor condition of the buildings, municipal ownership and governance, mixed management with community and low rents, which are insufficient to cover the costs. The paper discusses the proposed solutions of living standards, supported by the research in two directions: (i) available resources and reuse of materials, (ii) developing a renovation guidance for inhabitants from the building physics perspective, including indoor environment quality. Challenges related to energy efficiency are addressed from the decision-making perspective to overcome the barrier of lack of motivation to invest in energy-efficient measures at the individual and community level. The interdisciplinary approach complements engineering-focused studies with a focus on the comfort conditions and the influence of occupant habits in sustainable buildings. The methods used were literature review, case studies with observations and survey, looking to cover all technical, social, and historical aspects of sustainable renovation of cultural heritage buildings with the same level of importance. Results show that to keep a sustainable, low-cost urban living model, instructions for self-renovation are a valuable guidance for non-professional actors to make more sustainable choices. In conclusion, we can emphasize that inhabitants are accustomed to lower living standards, so the project is aimed to present the proper solutions for improvement as a balance between new sustainable technical solutions, personal self-renovation skills, habits, and health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Indoor Environment Quality)
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12 pages, 23694 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Charging and Discharging Process of LiFePO4 Battery Pack
by Wiesław Madej and Andrzej Wojciechowski
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4055; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134055 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2911
Abstract
A serious issue relative to the construction of electronic devices is proper power source selection. This problem is of particular importance when we are dealing with portable devices operating in varying environmental conditions, such as military equipment. A serious problem in the construction [...] Read more.
A serious issue relative to the construction of electronic devices is proper power source selection. This problem is of particular importance when we are dealing with portable devices operating in varying environmental conditions, such as military equipment. A serious problem in the construction of electronic devices is the correct selection of the power source. In these types of devices, lithium-ion batteries are commonly used nowadays, and in particular their variety—lithium iron phosphate battery—LiFePO4. Apart from the many advantages of this type of battery offers, such as high power and energy density, a high number of charge and discharge cycles, and low self-discharge. They also have a major drawback—a risk of damage due to excessive discharge or overcharge. This article studies the process of charging and discharging a battery pack composed of cells with different initial charge levels. An attempt was made to determine the risk of damage to the cells relative to the differences in the initial charge level of the battery pack cells. It was verified, whether the successive charging and discharging cycles reduce or increase the differences in the amount of energy stored in individual cells of the pack. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Security - Sociological and Technical Aspects and Innovations)
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16 pages, 3654 KiB  
Article
Optimization and Coordination of Electric Vehicle Charging Process for Long-Distance Trips
by Jean Hassler, Zlatina Dimitrova, Marc Petit and Philippe Dessante
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4054; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134054 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2492
Abstract
Battery electric vehicles offer many advantages in terms of performance and zero-emission pollutants, but their limited range for long-distance trips compromises their large-scale market penetration. The problem of range can be solved with a dense network of fast-charging stations and an increase in [...] Read more.
Battery electric vehicles offer many advantages in terms of performance and zero-emission pollutants, but their limited range for long-distance trips compromises their large-scale market penetration. The problem of range can be solved with a dense network of fast-charging stations and an increase in embedded battery capacity. Simultaneously, improvements in high-power charging point units offer range gains of hundreds of kilometers in a mere 20 min. One risk remains: The travel time depends on the availability of charging stations, which can drop during rush hours, due to long queues, or power grid constraints. These situations could significantly affect the user experience. In this paper, we presented an approach to coordinate EV charging station choices in the case of long-distance trips. This system relies on vehicle-to-infrastructure communications (V2X). The objective is to enhance the use of the infrastructure by improving the distribution of vehicles between the different charging stations, thus reducing waiting time. Our target is to build an efficient and easily deployable system. The performance of this system is compared to an uncoordinated situation and an offline optimization. We conducted a case study on a 550-km highway with heavy traffic. With this system, the results showed a 10% reduction in time spent in charging stations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Simulation and Optimization of Electrotechnical Systems)
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27 pages, 53161 KiB  
Article
Empirical Investigation of the Hygrothermal Diffusion Properties of Permeable Building Membranes Subjected to Variable Relative Humidity Condition
by Toba Samuel Olaoye, Mark Dewsbury and Hartwig Künzel
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4053; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134053 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3329
Abstract
Hygrothermal modelling is increasingly used to inform building envelope design. A key input for these calculations is the material’s vapour diffusion properties. Respecting a growing international concern, this research has questioned the appropriateness of the current test method to establish construction material for [...] Read more.
Hygrothermal modelling is increasingly used to inform building envelope design. A key input for these calculations is the material’s vapour diffusion properties. Respecting a growing international concern, this research has questioned the appropriateness of the current test method to establish construction material for vapour diffusion properties. This article reports on the empirical measurement of the vapour diffusion properties of two vapour-permeable building membranes commonly used in Australia residential systems when subjected to variable relative humidity conditions. The method involved completing dry cup and wet cup standard tests as specified in ISO 12572, (23 °C and 50% relative humidity RH). Further tests were then conducted as temperature remained at 23 °C but the relative humidity changed to 35%, 65% and 80%, respectively, in order to know if the diffusion properties are the same or change with varying relative humidity. The results from the wet cup and dry cup tests under different relative humidity conditions were non-linear and different. These results indicate vapour-permeable membranes behave differently when exposed to different relative humidity conditions. In conclusion, this research demonstrates that the current vapour resistivity test method is inadequate, hence the need to establish more detailed diffusion resistivity properties in different humidity ranges that represent conditions experienced within a building’s external envelope. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Energy and Environmental Economics)
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12 pages, 2714 KiB  
Article
A Study of Moist Air Condensation Characteristics in a Transonic Flow System
by Jie Wang and Hongfang Gu
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4052; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134052 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1846
Abstract
When water vapor in moist air reaches supersaturation in a transonic flow system, non-equilibrium condensation forms a large number of droplets which may adversely affect the operation of some thermal-hydraulic equipment. For a better understanding of this non-equilibrium condensing phenomenon, a numerical model [...] Read more.
When water vapor in moist air reaches supersaturation in a transonic flow system, non-equilibrium condensation forms a large number of droplets which may adversely affect the operation of some thermal-hydraulic equipment. For a better understanding of this non-equilibrium condensing phenomenon, a numerical model is applied to analyze moist air condensation in a transonic flow system by using the theory of nucleation and droplet growth. The Benson model is adopted to correct the liquid-plane surface tension equation for realistic results. The results show that the distributions of pressure, temperature and Mach number in moist air are significantly different from those in dry air. The dry air model exaggerates the Mach number by 19% and reduces both the pressure and the temperature by 34% at the nozzle exit as compared with the moist air model. At a Laval nozzle, for example, the nucleation rate, droplet number and condensation rate increase significantly with increasing relative humidity. The results also reveal the fact that the number of condensate droplets increases rapidly when moist air reaches 60% relative humidity. These findings provide a fundamental approach to account for the effect of condensate droplet formation on moist gas in a transonic flow system. Full article
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20 pages, 1324 KiB  
Article
Welcoming New Entrants into European Electricity Markets
by Tim Schittekatte, Valerie Reif and Leonardo Meeus
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4051; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134051 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4974
Abstract
In this review paper, we select four important waves of new entrants that knocked on the door of European electricity markets to illustrate how market rules need to be continuously adapted to allow new entrants to come in and push innovation forward. The [...] Read more.
In this review paper, we select four important waves of new entrants that knocked on the door of European electricity markets to illustrate how market rules need to be continuously adapted to allow new entrants to come in and push innovation forward. The new entrants that we selected are utilities venturing into neighbouring markets after establishing a strong position in their home market, utility-scale renewables project developers, asset-light software companies aggregating smaller consumers and producers, and different types of communities. We show that well-intentioned rules designed for certain types of market participants can (unintentionally) become obstacles for new entrants. We conclude that the evolution of market rules illustrates the importance of dynamic regulation. At the start of the liberalisation process the view was that we would deregulate or re-regulate the sector after which the role of regulators could be reduced. However, their role has only increased. New players tend to improve the sustainability of the electricity sector in environmental, social, or economic terms but might also present new risks that require intervention by regulators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation, Policy, and Regulation in Electricity Markets)
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27 pages, 12736 KiB  
Article
Supercritical CO2 Binary Mixtures for Recompression Brayton s-CO2 Power Cycles Coupled to Solar Thermal Energy Plants
by Paul Tafur-Escanta, Robert Valencia-Chapi, Ignacio López-Paniagua, Luis Coco-Enríquez and Javier Muñoz-Antón
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4050; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134050 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2244
Abstract
In this work, an evaluation and quantification of the impact of using mixtures based on supercritical carbon dioxide “s-CO2” (s-CO2/COS, s-CO2/H2S, s-CO2/NH3, s-CO2/SO2) are made as a [...] Read more.
In this work, an evaluation and quantification of the impact of using mixtures based on supercritical carbon dioxide “s-CO2” (s-CO2/COS, s-CO2/H2S, s-CO2/NH3, s-CO2/SO2) are made as a working fluid in simple and complex recompression Brayton s-CO2 power cycle configurations that have pressure drops in their components. These cycles are coupled with a solar thermal plant with parabolic-trough collector (PTC) technology. The methodology used in the calculation performance is to establish values of the heat recuperator total conductance (UAtotal) between 5 and 25 MW/K. The main conclusion of this work is that the cycle’s efficiency has improved due to using s-CO2 mixtures as working fluid; this is significant compared to the results obtained using the standard fluid (pure s-CO2). Furthermore, a techno-economic analysis is carried out that compares each configuration’s costs using pure s-CO2 and a mixture of s-CO2/COS with a molar fraction (70/30), respectively, as working fluid where relevant results are obtained. These results show that the best configuration in terms of thermal efficiency and cost is the RCC-RH for pure sCO2 with values of 41.25% and 2811 $/kWe, while for the mixture sCO2/COS, the RCC-2RH configuration with values of 45.05% and 2621 $/kWe is optimal. Using the mixture costs 6.75% less than if it is used the standard fluid (s-CO2). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Solar Power Plants)
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20 pages, 2900 KiB  
Article
Exhaustive Comparison between Linear and Nonlinear Approaches for Grid-Side Control of Wind Energy Conversion Systems
by Younes Azelhak, Loubna Benaaouinate, Hicham Medromi, Youssef Errami, Tarik Bouragba and Damien Voyer
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4049; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134049 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1904
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a comparative study of linear and nonlinear algorithms designed for grid-side control of the power flow in a wind energy conversion system. We performed several simulations and experiments with step and variable power scenarios for different values of [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose a comparative study of linear and nonlinear algorithms designed for grid-side control of the power flow in a wind energy conversion system. We performed several simulations and experiments with step and variable power scenarios for different values of the DC-link capacity with the DC storage element being the key element of the grid-side converter. The linear control was designed on the basis of the internal model control theory where an active damping was added to avoid steady state errors. Nonlinear controls were built using first and second order sliding mode controls with theoretical considerations to ensure accuracy and stability. We observed that the first order sliding mode control was the most efficient algorithm for controlling the DC-link voltage but that the chattering degraded the quality of the energy injected into the grid as well as the efficiency of the grid-side converter. The linear control caused overshoots on the DC-link voltage; however, this algorithm had better performance on the grid side due to its smoother control. Finally, the second order sliding mode control did not prove to be more robust than the other two algorithms. This can be explained by the fact that this control is theoretically more sensitive to converter losses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Power System Modeling and Control)
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34 pages, 3019 KiB  
Review
Review of the Durability of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell in Long-Term Operation: Main Influencing Parameters and Testing Protocols
by Huu Linh Nguyen, Jeasu Han, Xuan Linh Nguyen, Sangseok Yu, Young-Mo Goo and Duc Dung Le
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4048; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134048 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 9192
Abstract
Durability is the most pressing issue preventing the efficient commercialization of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stationary and transportation applications. A big barrier to overcoming the durability limitations is gaining a better understanding of failure modes for user profiles. In addition, durability [...] Read more.
Durability is the most pressing issue preventing the efficient commercialization of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stationary and transportation applications. A big barrier to overcoming the durability limitations is gaining a better understanding of failure modes for user profiles. In addition, durability test protocols for determining the lifetime of PEMFCs are important factors in the development of the technology. These methods are designed to gather enough data about the cell/stack to understand its efficiency and durability without causing it to fail. They also provide some indication of the cell/stack’s age in terms of changes in performance over time. Based on a study of the literature, the fundamental factors influencing PEMFC long-term durability and the durability test protocols for both PEMFC stationary and transportation applications were discussed and outlined in depth in this review. This brief analysis should provide engineers and researchers with a fast overview as well as a useful toolbox for investigating PEMFC durability issues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A5: Hydrogen Energy)
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18 pages, 5893 KiB  
Article
Remote Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis of Ocean Current Energy Hydraulic Transmission and Control Power Generation System
by Wenbin Su, Hongbo Wei, Penghua Guo and Ruizhe Guo
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4047; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134047 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2005
Abstract
The development of clean and environmentally friendly energy is necessary to address significant energy challenges, and abundant sea current energy, which plays a key role in the decarbonization of our energy systems and has attracted increasing attention among researchers. In the present study, [...] Read more.
The development of clean and environmentally friendly energy is necessary to address significant energy challenges, and abundant sea current energy, which plays a key role in the decarbonization of our energy systems and has attracted increasing attention among researchers. In the present study, a remote monitoring and diagnosis system was designed in accordance with the requirements of a 50 kW hydraulic transmission and control power generation system. Hardware selection and software function requirement analysis were then performed. The causes of system faults were analyzed, the output fault types of the improved model were determined, and effective monitoring parameters were selected. The accuracy of traditional spectra in diagnosing faults is poor; however, the generalization capability of support vector machines (SVM) is robust. Thus, an improved particle swarm algorithm optimized SVM fault diagnosis model for the hydraulic transmission control power generation system was proposed to rapidly and effectively determine the key parameters. Remote monitoring software for the hydraulic transmission and control power generation system was also developed. The results of remote monitoring and diagnostic tests showed that the software was able to satisfy the functional requirements of the hydraulic transmission control power generation remote monitoring system, and the operation effect was consistent with expectations. By comparing the test accuracy of different diagnostic models, the improved PSVM model has the highest test accuracy with a classification accuracy of 99.4% in the case of normal operation, accumulator failure, relief valve failure and motor failure. In addition, the proposed diagnostic method was effective, thereby ensuring safe and reliable operation of the hydraulic transmission control power generation system. Full article
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19 pages, 3213 KiB  
Article
Short-Term Load Forecasting Using Convolutional Neural Networks in COVID-19 Context: The Romanian Case Study
by Andrei M. Tudose, Irina I. Picioroaga, Dorian O. Sidea, Constantin Bulac and Valentin A. Boicea
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4046; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134046 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 2879
Abstract
Short-term load forecasting (STLF) is fundamental for the proper operation of power systems, as it finds its use in various basic processes. Therefore, advanced calculation techniques are needed to obtain accurate results of the consumption prediction, taking into account the numerous exogenous factors [...] Read more.
Short-term load forecasting (STLF) is fundamental for the proper operation of power systems, as it finds its use in various basic processes. Therefore, advanced calculation techniques are needed to obtain accurate results of the consumption prediction, taking into account the numerous exogenous factors that influence the results’ precision. The purpose of this study is to integrate, additionally to the conventional factors (weather, holidays, etc.), the current aspects regarding the global COVID-19 pandemic in solving the STLF problem, using a convolutional neural network (CNN)-based model. To evaluate and validate the impact of the new variables considered in the model, the simulations are conducted using publicly available data from the Romanian power system. A comparison study is further carried out to assess the performance of the proposed model, using the multiple linear regression method and load forecasting results provided by the Romanian Transmission System Operator (TSO). In this regard, the Mean Squared Error (MSE), the Mean Absolute Error (MAE), the Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE), and the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) are used as evaluation indexes. The proposed methodology shows great potential, as the results reveal better error values compared to the TSO results, despite the limited historical data. Full article
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16 pages, 5786 KiB  
Article
Surrogate-Based Optimization of Horizontal Axis Hydrokinetic Turbine Rotor Blades
by David Menéndez Arán and Ángel Menéndez
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4045; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134045 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1870
Abstract
A design method was developed for automated, systematic design of hydrokinetic turbine rotor blades. The method coupled a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) solver to estimate the power output of a given turbine with a surrogate-based constrained optimization method. This allowed the characterization of [...] Read more.
A design method was developed for automated, systematic design of hydrokinetic turbine rotor blades. The method coupled a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) solver to estimate the power output of a given turbine with a surrogate-based constrained optimization method. This allowed the characterization of the design space while minimizing the number of analyzed blade geometries and the associated computational effort. An initial blade geometry developed using a lifting line optimization method was selected as the base geometry to generate a turbine blade family by multiplying a series of geometric parameters with corresponding linear functions. A performance database was constructed for the turbine blade family with the CFD solver and used to build the surrogate function. The linear functions were then incorporated into a constrained nonlinear optimization algorithm to solve for the blade geometry with the highest efficiency. A constraint on the minimum pressure on the blade could be set to prevent cavitation inception. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Turbine Blade Optimization)
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22 pages, 4227 KiB  
Article
Discovery of Dynamic Two-Phase Flow in Porous Media Using Two-Dimensional Multiphase Lattice Boltzmann Simulation
by Guanxi Yan, Zi Li, Thierry Bore, Sergio Andres Galindo Torres, Alexander Scheuermann and Ling Li
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4044; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134044 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3338
Abstract
The dynamic two-phase flow in porous media was theoretically developed based on mass, momentum conservation, and fundamental constitutive relationships for simulating immiscible fluid-fluid retention behavior and seepage in the natural geomaterial. The simulation of transient two-phase flow seepage is, therefore, dependent on both [...] Read more.
The dynamic two-phase flow in porous media was theoretically developed based on mass, momentum conservation, and fundamental constitutive relationships for simulating immiscible fluid-fluid retention behavior and seepage in the natural geomaterial. The simulation of transient two-phase flow seepage is, therefore, dependent on both the hydraulic boundaries applied and the immiscible fluid-fluid retention behavior experimentally measured. Many previous studies manifested the velocity-dependent capillary pressure–saturation relationship (Pc-S) and relative permeability (Kr-S). However, those works were experimentally conducted on a continuum scale. To discover the dynamic effects from the microscale, the Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) is usually adopted as a novel method. Compared to the conventional CFD methods solving Naiver–Stokes (NS) equations incorporated with the fluid phase separation schemes, the two-phase Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) can generate the immiscible fluid-fluid interface using the fluid-fluid/solid interactions at a microscale. Therefore, the Shan–Chen multiphase multicomponent LBM was conducted in this study to simulate the transient two-phase flow in porous media. The simulation outputs demonstrate a preferential flow path in porous media after the non-wetting phase fluid is injected until, finally, the void space is fully occupied by the non-wetting phase fluid. In addition, the inter-relationships for each pair of continuum state variables for a Representative Elementary Volume (REV) of porous media were analyzed for further exploring the dynamic nonequilibrium effects. On one hand, the simulating outcomes reconfirmed previous findings that the dynamic effects are dependent on both the transient seepage velocity and interfacial area dynamics. Nevertheless, in comparison to many previous experimental studies showing the various distances between the parallelly dynamic and static Pc-S relationships by applying various constant flux boundary conditions, this study is the first contribution showing the Pc-S striking into the nonequilibrium condition to yield dynamic nonequilibrium effects and finally returning to the equilibrium static Pc-S by applying various pressure boundary conditions. On the other hand, the flow regimes and relative permeability were discussed with this simulating results in regards to the appropriateness of neglecting inertial effects (both accelerating and convective) in multiphase hydrodynamics for a highly pervious porous media. Based on those research findings, the two-phase LBM can be demonstrated to be a powerful tool for investigating dynamic nonequilibrium effects for transient multiphase flow in porous media from the microscale to the REV scale. Finally, future investigations were proposed with discussions on the limitations of this numerical modeling method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling Multiphase Flow and Reactive Transport in Porous Media)
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13 pages, 7169 KiB  
Article
Risk Assessment Method Combining Independent Protection Layers (IPL) of Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA) and RISKCURVES Software: Case Study of Hydrogen Refueling Stations in Urban Areas
by Byoungjik Park, Yangkyun Kim, Kwanwoo Lee, Shinwon Paik and Chankyu Kang
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4043; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134043 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2447
Abstract
The commercialization of eco-friendly hydrogen vehicles has elicited attempts to expand hydrogen refueling stations in urban areas; however, safety measures to reduce the risk of jet fires have not been established. The RISKCURVES software was used to evaluate the individual and societal risks [...] Read more.
The commercialization of eco-friendly hydrogen vehicles has elicited attempts to expand hydrogen refueling stations in urban areas; however, safety measures to reduce the risk of jet fires have not been established. The RISKCURVES software was used to evaluate the individual and societal risks of hydrogen refueling stations in urban areas, and the F–N (Frequency–Number of fatalities) curve was used to compare whether the safety measures satisfied international standards. From the results of the analysis, it was found that there is a risk of explosion in the expansion of hydrogen refueling stations in urban areas, and safety measures should be considered. To lower the risk of hydrogen refueling stations, this study applied the passive and active independent protection layers (IPLs) of LOPA (Layer of Protection Analysis) and confirmed that these measures significantly reduced societal risk as well as individual risk and met international standards. In particular, such measures could effectively reduce the impact of jet fire in dispensers and tube trailers that had a high risk. Measures employing both IPL types were efficient in meeting international standard criteria; however, passive IPLs were found to have a greater risk reduction effect than active IPLs. The combination of RISKCURVES and LOPA is an appropriate risk assessment method that can reduce work time and mitigate risks through protective measures compared to existing risk assessment methods. This method can be applied to risk assessment and risk mitigation not only for hydrogen facilities, but also for hazardous materials with high fire or explosion risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Safety)
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12 pages, 7446 KiB  
Article
Reactivity Effect Evaluation of Fast Reactor Based on Angular-Dependent Few-Group Cross Sections Generation
by Xianan Du, Xuewen Wu, Youqi Zheng and Yongping Wang
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4042; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134042 - 04 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1804
Abstract
Among all the possible occurring reactivity effects of a fast reactor, the situations whereby the control rod was inserted, or the coolant was voided could lead to strong anisotropy of neutron flux distribution, therefore the angular dependence on neutron flux should be considered [...] Read more.
Among all the possible occurring reactivity effects of a fast reactor, the situations whereby the control rod was inserted, or the coolant was voided could lead to strong anisotropy of neutron flux distribution, therefore the angular dependence on neutron flux should be considered during the few-group cross-sections generation. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to compare the influence whether the angular dependence on neutron flux is considered in the calculation of few-group cross sections for the reactivity effect calculation. In the study, the 1-D SN finite difference neutron transport equation solver was implemented in the TULIP of SARAX code system so that the high-order neutron flux could be obtained. Meanwhile, the improved Tone’s method was also applied. The numerical results were obtained based on three experimental FR cores, the JOYO MK-I core, ZPPR-9 core, and ZPPR-10B core. Both control rod worth and sodium void reactivity were calculated and compared with the measurement data. By summarizing and comparing the results of 46 cases, significant differences were found between different consideration of the neutronic analysis. The consideration of angular dependence on neutron flux distribution in the few-group cross-sections generation was beneficial to the neutronic design analysis of FR, especially for the reactivity effect calculation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Techniques of Nuclear Reactor Physics)
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20 pages, 9144 KiB  
Article
MPC Based Energy Management System for Hosting Capacity of PVs and Customer Load with EV in Stand-Alone Microgrids
by Kyung-Sang Ryu, Dae-Jin Kim, Heesang Ko, Chang-Jin Boo, Jongrae Kim, Young-Gyu Jin and Ho-Chan Kim
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4041; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134041 - 04 Jul 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2716
Abstract
This paper presents the improvements of the hosting capacity of photovoltaics (PVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) in a stand-alone microgrid (MG) with an energy storage system (ESS) by consider-ing a model predictive control (MPC) based energy management system. The system is configured as [...] Read more.
This paper presents the improvements of the hosting capacity of photovoltaics (PVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) in a stand-alone microgrid (MG) with an energy storage system (ESS) by consider-ing a model predictive control (MPC) based energy management system. The system is configured as an MG, including PVs, an ESS, a diesel generator (DG), and several loads with EVs. The DG is controlled to operate at rated power and the MPC algorithm is used in a stand-alone MG, which supplies the energy demanded for several loads with EVs. The hosting capacity of the load in-cluding the EV and PVs can be expanded through the ESS to the terminal node of the microgrid. In this case, the PVs and the load can be connected in excess of the capacity of the diesel genera-tor, and each bus in the feeder complies with the voltage range required by the grid. The effec-tiveness of the proposed algorithm to resolve the hosting capacity is demonstrated by numerical simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning-Based Energy Forecasting and Its Applications)
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16 pages, 4071 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Perforation Spacing on the Variation of Stress Shadow
by Weige Han, Zhendong Cui and Zhengguo Zhu
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4040; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134040 - 04 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2033
Abstract
When the shale gas reservoir is fractured, stress shadows can cause reorientation of hydraulic fractures and affect the complexity. To reveal the variation of stress shadow with perforation spacing, the numerical model between different perforation spacing was simulated by the extended finite element [...] Read more.
When the shale gas reservoir is fractured, stress shadows can cause reorientation of hydraulic fractures and affect the complexity. To reveal the variation of stress shadow with perforation spacing, the numerical model between different perforation spacing was simulated by the extended finite element method (XFEM). The variation of stress shadows was analyzed from the stress of two perforation centers, the fracture path, and the ratio of fracture length to spacing. The simulations showed that the reservoir rock at the two perforation centers is always in a state of compressive stress, and the smaller the perforation spacing, the higher the maximum compressive stress. Moreover, the compressive stress value can directly reflect the size of the stress shadow effect, which changes with the fracture propagation. When the fracture length extends to 2.5 times the perforation spacing, the stress shadow effect is the strongest. In addition, small perforation spacing leads to backward-spreading of hydraulic fractures, and the smaller the perforation spacing, the greater the deflection degree of hydraulic fractures. Additionally, the deflection angle of the fracture decreases with the expansion of the fracture. Furthermore, the perforation spacing has an important influence on the initiation pressure, and the smaller the perforation spacing, the greater the initiation pressure. At the same time, there is also a perforation spacing which minimizes the initiation pressure. However, when the perforation spacing increases to a certain value (the result of this work is about 14 m), the initiation pressure will not change. This study will be useful in guiding the design of programs in simultaneous fracturing. Full article
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26 pages, 41061 KiB  
Review
AC vs. DC Distribution Efficiency: Are We on the Right Path?
by Hasan Erteza Gelani, Faizan Dastgeer, Mashood Nasir, Sidra Khan and Josep M. Guerrero
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4039; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134039 - 04 Jul 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4298
Abstract
The concept of DC power distribution has gained interest within the research community in the past years, especially due to the rapid prevalence of solar PVs as a tool for distributed generation in DC microgrids. Various efficiency analyses have been presented for the [...] Read more.
The concept of DC power distribution has gained interest within the research community in the past years, especially due to the rapid prevalence of solar PVs as a tool for distributed generation in DC microgrids. Various efficiency analyses have been presented for the DC distribution paradigm, in comparison to the AC counterpart, considering a variety of scenarios. However, even after a number of such comparative efficiency studies, there seems to be a disparity in the results of research efforts, wherein a definite verdict is still unavailable. Is DC distribution a more efficient choice as compared to the conventional AC system? A final verdict is absent primarily due to conflicting results. In this regard, system modeling and the assumptions made in different studies play a significant role in affecting the results of the study. The current paper is an attempt to critically observe the modeling and assumptions used in the efficiency studies related to the DC distribution system. Several research efforts are analyzed for their approach toward the system upon which they have performed efficiency studies. Subsequently, the paper proposes a model that may alleviate the shortcomings in earlier research efforts and be able to give a definite verdict regarding the comparative efficiency of DC and AC networks for residential power distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Featured Papers in Electrical Power and Energy System)
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22 pages, 1074 KiB  
Article
A TensorFlow Approach to Data Analysis for Time Series Forecasting in the Energy-Efficiency Realm
by J. R. S. Iruela, L. G. B. Ruiz, M. I. Capel and M. C. Pegalajar
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4038; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134038 - 04 Jul 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3031
Abstract
Thanks to advances in smart metering devices (SM), the electricity sector is undergoing a series of changes, among which it is worth highlighting the ability to control the response to all events that occur in the electricity grid with the intention of making [...] Read more.
Thanks to advances in smart metering devices (SM), the electricity sector is undergoing a series of changes, among which it is worth highlighting the ability to control the response to all events that occur in the electricity grid with the intention of making it more smart. Predicting electricity consumption data is a key factor for the energy sector in order to create a completely intelligent electricity grid that optimizes consumption and forecasts future energy needs. However, it is currently not enough to give a prediction of energy consumption (EC), but it is also necessary to give the prediction as fast as possible so that the grid can operate in the shortest possible time. An approach for developing EC prediction systems is introduced here by the use of artificial neural networks (ANN). Differently from other research studies on the subject, a divide-and-conquer strategy is used so that the target system’s execution switches from one to another specialized small models that forecast the EC of a building within the time range of one hour. By simultaneously processing a large amount of data and models, a consequence of implementing them in parallel with TensorFlow on GPUs, the training procedure proposed here increases the performance of the classic time series prediction methods, which are based on ANN. Leveraging the latest generation of ANN techniques and new GPU-based architectures, correct EC predictions can be obtained and, as the experimentation carried out in this work shows, such predictions can be obtained quickly. The obtained results in this study show a promising way for speeding up big data processing of building’s monitoring data to achieve energy efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Time Series Forecasting for Energy Consumption)
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19 pages, 7059 KiB  
Article
Economic Optimization of Rotary Heat Exchangers Using CO2 Pricing Scenarios Based on Validated Fluid Dynamic and Thermodynamic-Based Simulation
by Eloy Melian, Harald Klein and Nikolaus Thißen
Energies 2021, 14(13), 4037; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134037 - 04 Jul 2021
Viewed by 1974
Abstract
Rotary heat exchangers have been widely used in paint shops, combustion power plants, and in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems in buildings. For these processes, many types of heat exchangers are available in the market: Tube-shell heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers, and [...] Read more.
Rotary heat exchangers have been widely used in paint shops, combustion power plants, and in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems in buildings. For these processes, many types of heat exchangers are available in the market: Tube-shell heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers, and rotary heat exchangers, among others. For the rotary heat exchangers, the problem is that there is no net present value method and lifecycle assessment method-based optimization found in the literature. In this work, we address this issue: An optimization is carried out with help of an empirically validated simulation model, a life-cycle assessment model, an economical assessment, and an optimization algorithm. The objective function of the optimization simultaneously considers economic and environmental aspects by using different CO2 pricing. Different CO2 pricing scenarios lead to different optimization results. The ambient air empty tube velocity va, 2.1 optimum was found at 1.2 m/s, which corresponds to a specific mass flow msp of 5.4 kg/(m2·h). For the wave angle β, the optimum was found in the range between 58° and 60°. For the wave height h* the optimum values were found to be between 2.64 mm and 2.77 mm. Finally, for the rotary heat exchanger length l, the optimum was found to be between 220 mm and 236 mm. The optimization results show that there is still potential for technical improvements in the design and operation of rotary heat exchangers. In general terms, we recommend that the optimized rotary heat exchanger should cause less pressure drop while resulting in similar heat recovery efficiency. This is because the life cycle assessment shows that the use phase for rotary heat exchangers has the biggest impact on greenhouse gases, specifically by saving on Scope 2 emissions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
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