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Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Civil Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 January 2023) | Viewed by 27591

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Prof. Dr. Mariusz Jaśniok

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Department of Building Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
Interests: concrete durability; rebar corrosion in concrete; coatings on steel reinforcement; corrosion diagnostics of building structures; corrosion monitoring; electrochemical impedance spectroscopy; realkalization; chloride extraction
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Prof. Dr. Maria Sozanska

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Faculty of Materials Engineering and Metallurgy, Institute of Materials Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
Interests: material characterization; microstructure; SEM analysis; XRD analysis; EDS; EDX; SEM operation; X-ray microanalysis; physical characterization; materials testing
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Prof. Dr. Zbigniew Perkowski

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Department of Physics of Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Opole University of Technology, 45-061 Opole, Poland
Interests: ultrasonic imaging of concrete structures; building physics; moisture transport in building porous materials; timber-concrete composite structures; concrete composite structures; mechanics of concrete; strength of materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Diagnostics of building structures is an extremely important element in ensuring the safety of users of building structures. Monitoring of the condition of structures, treated as cyclic diagnostic measurements, provides extremely valuable information about the deterioration of the structure. It is particularly important in the case of phenomena related to corrosion degradation of construction materials.

The Special Issue is focused on the broadly understood problems of diagnostics and remote monitoring of concrete and steel structures. Articles will be published on new or improved diagnostic methods, sensors, and systems for remote transmission of measurements. The scope of this issue also includes the so-called intelligent constructions, which on the basis of artificial intelligence algorithms make a self-assessment of technical condition.

Prof. Mariusz Jaśniok
Prof. Maria Sozanska
Prof. Zbigniew Perkowski
Guest Editors

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Keywords

building structures
concrete
steel
diagnostics
monitoring
measurements
corrosion
sensors
artificial intelligence

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 11161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Moisture in Concrete on the Photothermal Response—A New Approach for a Measurement Method?

by Rainer Krankenhagen

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(5), 2768; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13052768 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 806

Abstract

Recently, the photothermal determination of the thermophysical properties of concrete under lab conditions was reported. Their values are mainly needed to look at the energy consumption of buildings. Additionally, changes in their values in relation to the initial state might also be a good indicator for material quality or for moisture. The present contribution explains the photothermal method in a more general way to indicate the potential for on-site application. Secondly, a special application case is regarded: the detection of moisture in concrete. Two concrete samples were soaked with water, followed by a drying period, to obtain different levels of water penetration. The water contents were determined by weighing, and the photothermal response was measured. The results show a large influence on the measured temperature transients, which is larger than expected from the original simple model. They clearly provide two points: the photothermal method is suited to detect moisture in concrete, but the magnitude of the actual measurement effect is not yet understood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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12 pages, 1980 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluation of Early Age Concrete Pavement Strength by Combined Nondestructive Tests

by Katelyn Kosar, Lev Khazanovich and Lucio Salles

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(4), 2240; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13042240 - 09 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1244

Abstract

During concrete pavement construction, comprehensive information on concrete strength development is necessary for knowledgeable scheduling decisions. To improve in situ strength estimation, nondestructive tests can be combined to maximize available information and increase collection efficiency. Ultrasonic testing has a higher accuracy in strength estimation for early age concrete and the external device allows for more data to be easily collected, while maturity testing can use temperature models to predict strength development. A procedure was created that combines these methods and their strength models in the laboratory for improved and increased field strength data. Using the procedure allows more data to be collected with greater accuracy and provides an adjustable, predicted strength development. This improves the efficiency of fast-track construction projects without resorting to costly alternatives by providing more information on strength development of in situ concrete than traditional strength testing or nondestructive methods individually. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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38 pages, 21837 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Machine Learning Approach to Prediction of the Compressive Strength of Segregated Lightweight Aggregate Concretes Using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

by Violeta Migallón, Héctor Penadés, José Penadés and Antonio José Tenza-Abril

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(3), 1953; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13031953 - 02 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2139

Abstract

Lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) is an increasingly important material for modern construction. However, although it has several advantages compared with conventional concrete, it is susceptible to segregation due to the low density of the incorporated aggregate. The phenomenon of segregation can adversely affect the mechanical properties of LWAC, reducing its compressive strength and its durability. In this work, several machine learning techniques are used to study the influence of the segregation of LWAC on its compressive strength, including the K-nearest neighbours (KNN) algorithm, regression tree-based algorithms such as random forest (RF) and gradient boosting regressors (GBRs), artificial neural networks (ANNs) and support vector regression (SVR). In addition, a weighted average ensemble (WAE) method is proposed that combines RF, SVR and extreme GBR (or XGBoost). A dataset that was recently used for predicting the compressive strength of LWAC is employed in this experimental study. Two different types of lightweight aggregate (LWA), including expanded clay as a coarse aggregate and natural fine limestone aggregate, were mixed to produce LWAC. To quantify the segregation in LWAC, the ultrasonic pulse velocity method was adopted. Numerical experiments were carried out to analyse the behaviour of the obtained models, and a performance improvement was shown compared with the machine learning models reported in previous works. The best performance was obtained with GBR, XGBoost and the proposed weighted ensemble method. In addition, a good choice of weights in the WAE method allowed our approach to outperform all of the other models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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24 pages, 16517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Detection of Corrosion in Large-Scale Industrial Buildings Based on Artificial Intelligence and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

by Rafael Lemos, Rafael Cabral, Diogo Ribeiro, Ricardo Santos, Vinicius Alves and André Dias

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(3), 1386; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13031386 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2227

Abstract

In recent years, Artificial Intelligence (AI) provided essential tools to enhance the productivity of activities related to civil engineering, particularly in design, construction, and maintenance. In this framework, the present work proposes a novel AI computer vision methodology for automatically identifying the corrosion phenomenon on roofing systems of large-scale industrial buildings. The proposed method can be incorporated into computational packages for easier integration by the industry to enhance the inspection activities’ performance. For this purpose, a dedicated image database with more than 8k high-resolution aerial images was developed for supervised training. An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) was used to acquire remote georeferenced images safely and efficiently. The corrosion anomalies were manually annotated using a segmentation strategy summing up 18,381 instances. These anomalies were identified through instance segmentation using the Mask based Region-Convolution Neural Network (Mask R-CNN) framework adjusted to the created dataset. Some adjustments were performed to enhance the performance of the classification model, particularly defining an adequate input image size, data augmentation strategy, Intersection over a Union (IoU) threshold during training, and type of backbone network. The inferences show promising results, with correct detections even under complex backgrounds, poor illumination conditions, and instances of significantly reduced dimensions. Furthermore, in scenarios without a roofing system, the model proved reliable, not producing any false positive occurrences. The best model achieved metrics’ values equal to 65.1% for the bounding box detection Average Precision (AP) and 59.2% for the mask AP, considering an IoU of 50%. Regarding classification metrics, the precision and recall were equal to 85.8% and 84.0%, respectively. The developed methodology proved to be extremely valuable for guiding infrastructure managers in taking physically informed decisions based on the real assets condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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15 pages, 5458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Variable-Frequency Hammering Method Using Acoustic Features for Damage-Type Identification

by Xi Huang, Huang Huang and Zhishen Wu

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(3), 1329; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13031329 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1250

Abstract

Hammer testing, a nondestructive testing method, has been demonstrated to provide information on structural damage. One of the biggest challenges with this testing method is the simultaneous identification of surface, internal, and composite damage (consisting of both surface and internal damage) in a complex environment, such as post-disaster. A method of identification based on variable-frequency hammering is proposed to solve this problem. The importance and feasibility of using variable-frequency impact hammers and the generated acoustic data to identify multiple types of damage in concrete structures are presented. First, a type of variable-frequency hammering acoustic feature was generated using acoustic feature extraction and selection based on the acoustic data obtained from variable-frequency hammering. Second, a damage recognition model was established using a support vector machine to identify four types of damage occurring simultaneously in the same concrete member specimens, including a type of composite damage with two types of damage occurring simultaneously within 20 mm. Finally, the feasibility of this variable-frequency hammering method was verified experimentally. This method exhibited good performance, with an accuracy of 97.8%; moreover, the method ensures that the feature dimensionality remains unchanged while increasing the effective information of the data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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25 pages, 7366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Corrosion Diagnostics Performed on Cores Drilled from Concrete Structures, Using the Laboratory Simulation of Temperature and Relative Humidity Impact

by Mariusz Jaśniok and Tomasz Jaśniok

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(14), 7134; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12147134 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1164

Abstract

This paper presents an improved procedure for conducting diagnostics tests on corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. This method consists in drilling cylindrical concrete cores with fragments of secondary steel reinforcement (e.g., spacer bars, stirrups, binders) from the selected areas of the structure. Then, a three-electrode system is arranged on those cylindrical cores under laboratory conditions. The fragment of steel rebar with concrete is used as the working electrode. Using the counter electrode in the form of a patented conductive coating applied on the core side wall with painting techniques and the graphite reference electrode placed in an opening made in the core near the reinforcement was the novelty of this method. Following the procedure, the occurrence of minimum and maximum corrosion rates in concrete is simulated in the climate chamber after determining, on the basis of historical weather data, extreme combinations of temperature, and relative humidity for a given structure. This method was verified in the diagnostics testing of two large reinforced concrete tanks for fresh water, and cement storage silos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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16 pages, 7248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tree Based Approaches for Predicting Concrete Carbonation Coefficient

by Shreenivas Londhe, Preeti Kulkarni, Pradnya Dixit, Ana Silva, Rui Neves and Jorge de Brito

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 3874; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12083874 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1533

Abstract

Carbonation is one of the critical durability issues in reinforced concrete structures in terms of their structural integrity and safety and may cause the fatal deterioration and corrosion of steel reinforcement if ignored. Many researchers have performed a considerable number of studies to predict the carbonation of concrete structures. However, it is still challenging to predict the carbonation depth or carbonation coefficient, as they depend on various factors. Therefore, creating a model that can learn from available data using Data Driven Techniques (DDT) is a step forward in this research field. This study provides new approaches to predict the carbonation coefficient of concrete through Model Tree (MT), Random Forest (RF) and Multi-Gene Genetic Programming (MGGP) approaches. With 827 case studies, the predicted models can be seen as a function of a set of conditioning factors, which are statistically significant in explaining the carbonation mechanism. The results obtained through MT, RF and MGGP were compared with those obtained through Multiple Linear Regression (MLR), Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Genetic Programming (which were previously developed). The results reveal that the MT, RF and MGGP perform better than the previous models. Moreover, the MT technique displays its output in terms of series of equations, RF as multiple trees and MGGP in form of a single equation, which are more user-friendly and applicable in practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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28 pages, 16720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Validation of a Low-Cost Structural Health Monitoring System for Dynamic Characterization of Structures

by David Caballero-Russi, Albert R. Ortiz, Andrés Guzmán and Carlos Canchila

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(6), 2807; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12062807 - 09 Mar 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3148

Abstract

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is essential to identifying problems that may cause human and material losses produced by disastrous and unexpected structural failures. The dynamic characterization of civil structures adopting SHM systems provides, at a particular moment, accurate information about the current structural response. When considering a proper SHM strategy and affordable economic investment for the maintenance required by structures, it is possible to safeguard the original structural parameters and avoid potential failures. However, traditional SHM systems are not desirable due to the large economic investments involved and demand for exhausting fieldwork. This research presents the design, implementation, and validation of a low-cost SHM system composed of a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and a base station in order to identify dynamic properties from the measured structural response. A set of small- and full-scale experimental tests were conducted to validate the WSN system using a wired traditional SHM system. Vibration data recorded through the low-cost SHM system were processed and compared to determine the natural frequencies, mode shapes, and damping properties of different structures by computing modal identification techniques, frequency analysis, and logarithmic decrement. The obtained dynamic characterization results from small- and full-scale experimental testing conclude that the low-cost SHM system can reliably identify the dynamic properties of the tested structures. This proposal provides an inexpensive, functional, and innovative alternative for SHM regarding traditional monitoring systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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25 pages, 18807 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The “Skin Effect” Assessment of Chloride Ingress into Concrete Based on the Identification of Effective and Apparent Diffusivity

by Zbigniew Perkowski and Zofia Szweda

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1730; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12031730 - 08 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1730

Abstract

The method of assessment of the “skin effect” for chloride ingress into concrete has been proposed, based on the inverse problem for the identification of at-surface variability of chloride diffusivity under fully saturated conditions. For this purpose, experimental results of 180-day diffusion tests of five types of concrete were used, which allowed the calculation of their chloride apparent diffusivity (taking into account the chloride binding by the cement matrix) and effective diffusivity (relating to the transport of free chloride ions in the pore liquid). The tested concrete samples with a water to cement ratio of 0.5 differed only in the type of cement (high early strength Portland, low-alkali normal early strength Portland, ash Portland, blast furnace, and pozzolanic). In order to effectively describe the chloride binding isotherm, a first-degree non-uniform spline function was used. Finally, the “skin effect” depth at the untreated outer surface of the concrete samples was estimated up to about 5 mm when analyzing space variability of apparent chloride diffusivity for four types of concrete with low-alkali normal early strength Portland, ash Portland, blast furnace, and pozzolanic cement. In this respect, the “skin effect” on the concrete with high early strength Portland cement was not detected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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20 pages, 6238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intelligent Anomaly Identification of Uplift Pressure Monitoring Data and Structural Diagnosis of Concrete Dam

by Chunhui Ma, Tianhao Zhao, Gaochao Li, Anan Zhang and Lin Cheng

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 612; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12020612 - 09 Jan 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1700

Abstract

As an essential load of the concrete dam, the abnormal change of uplift pressure directly threatens the safety and stability of the concrete dam. Therefore, it is of great significance to accurately and efficiently excavate the hidden information of the uplift pressure monitoring data to clarify the safety state of the concrete dam. Therefore, in this paper, density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN) method is used to intelligently identify the abnormal occurrence point and abnormal stable stage in the monitoring data. Then, an application method of measured uplift pressure is put forward to accurately reflect the spatial distribution and abnormal position of uplift pressure in the dam foundation. It is easy to calculate and connect with the finite element method through self-written software. Finally, the measured uplift pressure is applied to the finite element model of the concrete dam. By comparing the structural behavior of the concrete dam under the design and measured uplift pressure, the influence of abnormal uplift pressure on the safety state of the concrete dam is clarified, which can guide the project operation. Taking a 98.5 m concrete arch dam in western China as an example, the above analysis ideas and calculation methods have been verified. The abnormal identification method and uplift pressure applying method can provide ideas and tools for the structural diagnosis of a concrete dam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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16 pages, 7404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Field Test for a Base Isolation Structure on Condition of Horizontal and Initial Displacement

by Ying-Xiong Wu, Xin-Jun Dong, You-Qin Lin and Hao-De Cheng

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(1), 232; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12010232 - 27 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2276

Abstract

There are a few isolated structures that have been subjected to seismic testing. An isolated structure is incapable of tracking, adjusting, and controlling its dynamic characteristics. As a result, field evaluations of solitary structures’ dynamic characteristics are important. The horizontal initial displacement of a base isolation kindergarten made of 46 isolation bearings is 75 mm. The method for creating the horizontal initial displacement condition is illustrated, as are the primary test findings. Horizontal initial displacement is accomplished with the assistance of a reaction wall, rods, and hydraulic pump system. To begin, we removed the building using hydraulic jacks to produce horizontal displacement of the isolation layer and then attached rods to support the building. The rods were then shot and unloaded, causing the building to shake freely, and its dynamic response and other parameters were tested. The results indicate that the natural vibration period of an isolated structure is much greater than the natural vibration period of a seismic structure. The isolation layer’s hysteretic curve as completely filled; upon unloading, the isolation layer as promptly reset; the dynamic response control effect of each was visible, but the top floor’s acceleration was magnified by approximately 1.27 times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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18 pages, 12656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Durability Prediction Method for Historical Square Rebar Reinforced Concrete Buildings

by Hui Jin, Qing Chun, Chengwen Zhang and Yidan Han

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(24), 11737; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app112411737 - 10 Dec 2021

Viewed by 2224

Abstract

Square rebars were developed and used for decades in the early development of reinforced concrete (RC) structures; however, the objectives of modern concrete structure durability analyses and standards are centered on round rebars in past decades, which are not suited for RC buildings utilizing square rebars. Considering the absence of proper evaluation techniques to evaluate the square rebar RC structures’ durability accurately, a novel durability prediction method has been proposed for this type of historical building. The method is based on major parts as in-situ investigation, finite element model simulation, component importance analysis, and structural durability prediction. The durability prediction calculation method was established on the experimental results of the realistic historical concrete tests and corrosion-induced cover cracking experiments for square rebar components. It was found that the carbonization-resistant ability of historical concretes was relatively weaker than that of current concretes and the calculation method for critical corrosion depth of square rebar was different from that of round rebar. Furthermore, two typical application cases are presented to introduce the procedure of the method in detail. Consequently, the research outcomes can be directly used on the durability prediction and protection works for historical RC buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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23 pages, 10086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Fatigue Crack Formation and Propagation on Reliability of Steel Members

by Peter Koteš and Josef Vičan

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(23), 11562; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app112311562 - 06 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1963

Abstract

During the years of bridge exploitation, many degradation processes and external influences attack its structure. Therefore, bridge reliability and durability is decreasing in time. On the other hand, the traffic load remains almost the same or even higher than in the past. However, bridges should not to become the limiting component of communication capacity and traffic reliability. Regarding to reliability, bridges should be assessed from the viewpoint of the Ultimate Limit States (ULS) and Serviceability Limit States (SLS). Within the ULS, cross-sections and members are verified for various types of stressing and their combinations, and also for fatigue at the same time. The cross-sectional verification, e.g., for bending stresses and fatigue, is done independently according to corresponding criteria of the ULS determined for strength verification a fatigue assessment separately. The presented article deals with the steel railway plate girder bridge with bottom member deck, in which there is an effort to prove the effect of the crack in tension bottom flange due to fatigue stressing on the change of bending resistance over time. The analytical calculation was derived and at the same time, the probabilistic approach of the influence of the fatigue crack size on the change of the cross-sectional resistance and reliability over time was used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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11 pages, 48352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Usage of Barkhausen Noise for Assessment of Corrosion Damage on Different Low Alloyed Steels

by Filip Pastorek, Martin Decký, Miroslav Neslušan and Martin Pitoňák

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(22), 10646; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app112210646 - 11 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1511

Abstract

This study deals with corrosion damage of low alloyed feritic steels of variable strength. Three different steels of nominal yield strength 235, 700 and 1100 MPa were subjected to the variable degree of corrosion attack developed in the corrosion chamber under a neutral salt spray (NSS) atmosphere. The corrosion damage was investigated by the use of conventional metallographic observations when the thickness of corroded layer was quantified. Moreover, non-destructive magnetic technique, based on Barkhausen noise, was also employed. It was found that the rate of corrosion damage decreases along with the increasing number of days in the chamber. The similar evolution can be also found for Barkhausen noise emission and the extracted parameters from the emission. It can be reported that conventional rms value of Barkhausen noise signal as well as FWHM (full width at half maximum of Barkhausen noise envelope) can be linked with the corrosion extent, especially in the early phases of corrosion attack. The PP (peak position of Barkhausen noise envelope) values exhibit poor sensitivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics and Monitoring of Steel and Concrete Structures)

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