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Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "E: Electric Vehicles".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 May 2023) | Viewed by 23494

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Dr. Alberto Reatti

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School of Engineering, University of Florence, 50121 Florence, Italy
Interests: electrical engineering; power electronics; photovoltaics; electric drives
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

All-electric vehicles are gaining significant market share and will rapidly develop in the next few years. However, the optimization of the power train is still a topic requiring investigations to achieve an entire system optimization. Most of the literature in this topic is focused on single components of the power train, that is, batteries, power converters, motors, etc. All these devices still require improvements, are worth investigation, and represent interesting fields of research. Moreover, the design of the overall system is still an issue, and it is key to achieving an optimization of costs, weights, and volumes also considering lifetime, safety, standards, and regulation requirements. Electric vehicles also represent an opportunity related to recyclability aspects such as the second life of batteries or material recycling, and this needs consideration and innovative solutions.

This Special Issue aims to provide the current state-of-the-art technology in the design of the power train, an updated status of this field, and to cover new aspects and new solutions. Topics of interests include (but are not limited to):

Advancements in powertrain architectures;
Power electronic converters such as inverters, onboard chargers, and DC/DC converters;
Wired and wireless charging systems;
Reliability and lifetime estimation of powertrain subsystems and components;
Thermal management solutions for the drive unit, onboard power electronics, and battery modules;
System level optimization considering performance, cost, efficiency, and reliability;
Battery management system;
Electrical and mechanical sensing technologies;
Safety requirements and protection solutions;
Recycling of powertrain components;
Design of motors, including design for torque ripple reduction;
Design for wide-bandgap (WBG) drives.

Dr. Alberto Reatti
Guest Editor

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Keywords

powertrain
wide-bandgap motor drives
high-efficiency powertrain

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Research

28 pages, 6293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct Tilt Controller Design with Disturbance Compensation and Implementation for a Narrow Tilting Electric Vehicle

by Mustafa Karamuk and Orhan Behic Alankus

Energies 2023, 16(15), 5724; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16155724 - 31 Jul 2023

Viewed by 809

Abstract

Three-wheeled electric city vehicles are becoming popular because they have lower cost and enable motorcycle driving feeling with electric powertrain performance. These vehicles need a driver assistant system, also known as an active tilting stability controller, to provide a safe cornering manoeuvre. Active tilt control methods are direct tilt control (DTC), steering tilt control (STC) and a combination of these methods. In this study, DTC system design with a servo motor actuator with simulation and experimental results are presented. State feedback control with pole placement design has been improved with disturbance compensation control. This novel controller structure enhances the response of DTC and enables a faster-tilting response. Simulation results are given up to 10 m/s speed. Experimental results of the developed method are given up to 3.05 m/s (11 km/h) speed on a three-wheeled electric vehicle. The speed control loop of the servo motor drive unit (SMDU) stabilizes the DTC system. In the state of the art, a proportional derivative controller is commonly used as a tilt controller. By including the speed control loop of SMDU in the tilt control system, the use of the derivative term can be eliminated. The stability effect of the speed control loop is shown by MATLAB analysis, simulations in Simulink and experimental step response test as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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23 pages, 2443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design Consideration of ZVS Single-Ended Parallel Resonant DC-DC Converter, Based on Application of Optimization Techniques

by Nikolay Hinov and Bogdan Gilev

Energies 2023, 16(14), 5295; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16145295 - 11 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 873

Abstract

The paper presents the design of a single-ended transistor zero-voltage switch (ZVS) parallel resonant DC-DC converter. Due to the use of a resonant inverter in the structure of the DC-DC converter, it is characterized by high efficiency and improved performance. On the other hand, due to the specifics of the power circuit operation, in the work, it is proposed to find the values of some of the elements of the circuit of the electronic converter to be carried out based on the application of optimization. To solve this task, various tools available in Matlab/Simulink have been applied, as well as author’s programs specially developed for the purpose. The use of a hybrid method for the design of power electronic converters, which combines analytical and optimization approaches, is justified in cases where there is no adequate design procedure. With the increase in the complexity of the power topologies and their possible modes of operation, difficulties arise related to their design such as: assumptions and limitations in conducting the analysis and the corresponding methodologies based on this analysis; high order of the differential equations composing the mathematical models; need for highly qualified specialists in the field of design. The proposed approach does not negate the classical design methods based only on analytical ratios determined by analysis of power circuits, but complements and develops them with innovative ones based on the application of computational mathematics and information and communication technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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25 pages, 11042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supercapacitors Fast Ageing Control in Residential Microgrid Based Photovoltaic/Fuel Cell/Electric Vehicle Charging Station

by Awab Baqar, Mamadou Baïlo Camara and Brayima Dakyo

Energies 2023, 16(13), 5084; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16135084 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 907

Abstract

The demand for microgrids and their applications in buildings, industries and for very specific applications is increasing over time. Most of these microgrids are dependent on renewable energy sources, which brings along problems of intermittent energy production. To maintain the balance of the grid, normally storage devices are used. Supercapacitors (SCs) are emerging as one of the potential solutions to solve the issue of intermittent energy production by renewable sources because of their high-power densities and rapid charge/discharge capability. In other terms, SCs can charge, and discharge rather quickly as compared to traditional lithium-batteries. This usage makes it interesting for optimizing decentralized energy generation-based PV systems operations. In this paper, the authors propose the supercapacitors fast ageing control in residential microgrid, including electric vehicle charging station based Photovoltaic-Fuel Cell system. Supercapacitors fast ageing control concept focuses on keeping the electrical parameters of the SCs around the optimal operation points by smoothing the power fluctuations in the system. The used SCs model is essentially based on the intermittent current waveforms along with variable temperature conditions. It enables us to describe the degradation of the supercapacitor’s parameters based on the effects of the temperature and the DC-current undulation. To maintain the electrical parameters of SCs around the optimal operation points, the authors propose a new control based on maintaining the SCs resistance at a minimal level and its capacitance at a maximal level by adjusting the SCs current control according to the optimal operating points tracking. The results validate the effectiveness of the approach, this is important because controlling the fast degradation of capacitance optimizes the lifetime of SCs system. Future research may explore scalability to large microgrids and integration with diverse renewable energy systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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23 pages, 28161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Experimental Implementation of Optimized PI-ANFIS Controller for Speed Control of a Brushless DC Motor in Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

by Abdessamad Intidam, Hassan El Fadil, Halima Housny, Zakariae El Idrissi, Abdellah Lassioui, Soukaina Nady and Abdeslam Jabal Laafou

Energies 2023, 16(11), 4395; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16114395 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1398

Abstract

This paper compares the performance of different control techniques applied to a high-performance brushless DC (BLDC) motor. The first controller is a classical proportional integral (PI) controller. In contrast, the second one is based on adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (proportional integral-adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (PI-ANFIS) and particle swarm optimization-proportional integral-adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (PSO-PI-ANFIS)). The control objective is to regulate the rotor speed to its desired reference value in the presence of load torque disturbance and parameter variations. The proposed controller uses a dSPACE platform (MicroLabBox controller board). The experimental prototype comprises a PEMFC system (the Nexa Ballard FC power generator: 1.2 kW, 52 A) and a brushless DC motor BLDC of 1 kW 1000 rpm. The PSO-PI-ANFIS controller presents better performance than the PI-ANFIS and classical PI controllers due to its ability to optimize the PI-ANFIS controller’s parameters using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. This optimization results in improved tracking accuracy and reduced overshoot and settling time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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20 pages, 5885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Bridgeless Cuk-BB-Converter-Based BLDCM Drive for MEV Applications

by Tanmay Shukla and Srete Nikolovski

Energies 2023, 16(9), 3747; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16093747 - 27 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1257

Abstract

This article presents a brushless DC motor (BLDCM) drive for a maritime electric vehicle (MEV) application. The presented BLDCM drive uses a bridgeless Cuk-buckboost (BL-Cuk-BB) converter for input-side power factor (PF) improvement. The BL-Cuk-BB converter uses the buckboost converter for the negative half-cycles of the input AC voltages and the Cuk converter for the positive half-cycles. In the case of MEVs, the drive systems are generally fed by diesel engine generators (DEGs). The asymmetric BL-Cuk-BB converter is operated in a discontinuous inductor current mode (DICM) in the present work to attain better power quality. The usage of a second-order buckboost converter with a fourth-order Cuk converter results in a decrement in the net order of the system. Additionally, the input inductor of the Cuk converter also participates as the filter component along with capacitor C₂ during buckboost converter operation to enhance the power quality. The total component count reduction in the BL-Cuk-BB converter is also achieved by eliminating the usage of extra/external back-feeding diodes, which are generally used in bridgeless schemes. The present scheme uses the inbuilt anti-parallel diodes for the same purpose. The lesser components requirement in the BL-Cuk-BB-converter-based BLDCM drive implies lesser cost and volume, along with greater reliability, lower conduction losses, and lower weight of the BLDCM drive, which adds to the merits of the model. The paper includes a detailed mathematical model and stability analysis using pole-zero maps and bode plots of the BL-Cuk-BB converter for each half-supply AC voltage cycle. The BL-Cuk-BB-converter-based BLDCM drive for an EV application has been developed on the MATLAB/Simulink platform for a DICM operation, and the MATLAB simulation results have been presented for validation of the BL-Cuk-BB-converter-based BLDCM drive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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20 pages, 7656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Degree of Electrification in Heavy-Duty Vehicles

by Santiago Martinez-Boggio, Javier Monsalve-Serrano, Antonio García and Pedro Curto-Risso

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3565; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16083565 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1874

Abstract

Because of the rising demand for CO₂ emission limits and the high cost of fuel, the electrification of heavy-duty vehicles has become a hot topic. Manufacturers have tried a variety of designs to entice customers, but the outcomes vary depending on the application and availability of recharging. Without affecting vehicle range, plug-in hybrids provide a potential for the automobile industry to reach its CO₂ reduction objectives. However, the actual CO₂ emission reductions will largely rely on the energy source, user behavior, and vehicle design. This research compares a series plug-in hybrid medium-duty truck against two baselines: nonhybrid and pure electric commercial trucks. As well as evaluating and contrasting the different tools to quantify CO₂ emissions, this manuscript offers fresh information on how to simulate various powertrain components used in electrified vehicles. According to the findings, plug-in hybrids with batteries larger than 50 kWh can reduce emissions by 30%, while still meeting the 2030 well-to-wheel CO₂ regulations. The recommended battery size for plug-in hybrid is 100 kWh, and for electric vehicles it is 320 kWh. The range of a plug-in hybrid is 18% longer than that of nonhybrid, 6% longer than that of a full hybrid, and 76% longer than that of a pure electric powertrain with a fully charged battery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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15 pages, 413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Analysis of Electric Vehicle Charging Based on AC Slow Chargers

by Dong Sik Kim, Young Mo Chung and Beom Jin Chung

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2735; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16062735 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1220

Abstract

Regarding DC fast chargers, various studies, such as the charge scheduling, have been conducted. On the other hand, research on AC slow chargers has rarely been conducted due to the predictable and simple usage pattern. Despite the long charging times of AC slow chargers, which use the existing electric outlets with relatively low supplied power, these chargers are suitable for daily home charging of electric vehicles (EVs) during the night. Due to their low installation costs, they are likely to be the dominant type of charging equipment. In this paper, the EV charging process based on AC slow chargers, which supply a maximum power of 3 kW from an AC 220 V outlet, is analyzed by constructing a simple charging model. The charging time and fees are statistically derived and investigated. Furthermore, power load curves for charging EVs with the 3 kW charger are observed. From the statistical analyses, we conclude that daily charging of EVs can be an appropriate scenario in using the AC slow chargers, and the power load can be spread without employing any demand response schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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24 pages, 9594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tenerife’s Infrastructure Plan for Electromobility: A MATSim Evaluation

by Alejandro Rojano-Padrón, Marc Olivier Metais, Francisco J. Ramos-Real and Yannick Perez

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1178; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16031178 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1764

Abstract

According to the Canarian government’s plans, a complete decarbonization of the Canary Islands economy is foreseen from 2040 onwards, which includes the electrification of land transport in the archipelago. However, due to the current low penetration rate of electric vehicles (EVs) on the islands, the number of EVs in circulation is expected to grow significantly in the coming years. Despite this, the network of charging points in Tenerife is currently totally insufficient, which is why it is essential to carry out a study to design the network of charging points in such a way that it can absorb the entire fleet of EVs that is expected to be in place by 2040. To this end, there are studies on the capacity, in terms of parking space, available for the installation of these charging points, but to date there are no studies on this subject supported by mobility data. For this reason, a simulation of traffic in Tenerife in 2040 has been carried out using MATSim (Multi-Agent Transport Simulation) to determine the ideal places to install these charging points and to find the number of charging points needed for the network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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15 pages, 3915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Simulation of a Low-Cost Fast Charging Station Based on a Micro Gas Turbine and a Supercapacitor

by Bogdan Gilev, Miroslav Andreev, Nikolay Hinov and George Angelov

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8020; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15218020 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1482

Abstract

In recent years, micro turbine technology has become a continuously reliable and viable distributed generation system. The application of distributed energy power generation sources, such as micro gas turbines (MGT), to charge electric vehicles offers numerous technical, economical benefits, and opportunities. MGT are considered as they are smaller than conventional heavy-duty gas turbines. They also are capable of accepting and operating with different fossil fuels in the range of low–high pressure levels as well as co-generation opportunities. The MGT could provide the fast and reliable output power guaranteed and needed for grid stability. This paper provides a mathematical representation, modelling, and simulation of a low-cost fast charging station based on a micro gas turbine and a super capacitor forming altogether a power generation system suitable for use especially as energy source in fast charging stations and dynamic power systems. All the micro gas turbine’s parameters are estimated according to available performance and operational data. The proposed system generates up to 30 kW output power assuming that it operates with natural gas. The developed model of the system is simulated in the environment of MATLAB/Simulink. Each part of the micro turbine generation system is represented by a mathematical model. On the basis of the developed model of the system, the minimum value of the supercapacitor was determined, which ensures the charging schedule of a selected electric vehicle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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25 pages, 5772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Balanced Control System Based on Bidirectional Flyback DC Converter

by Dongchen Qin, Shuai Qin, Tingting Wang, Hongxia Wu and Jiangyi Chen

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7226; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15197226 - 01 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1204

Abstract

The inconsistency of the battery pack will cause the “barrel effect“ when the battery pack is working. The battery with lower power will first reach the discharge cut-off condition, resulting in the battery pack not being fully discharged, reducing the battery utilization rate. This paper uses the state of charge (SOC) as an equilibrium variable and the forgetting factor recursive least square–extended Kalman filter (FFRLS-EKF) method to estimate the SOC. Using a balanced topology based on a bidirectional impact direct current (DC) converter, the energy transfer can occur between any battery and only between batteries that need to be balanced, increasing energy utilization and the effect of equalization. The equalization system is simulated under various conditions, which proves the effectiveness of the equalization control system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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18 pages, 7391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Modelling of Energy Conversion with the Two-Region Torque Control of a PMSM in an EV Powertrain

by Grzegorz Sieklucki and Dawid Kara

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4887; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15134887 - 03 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1545

Abstract

This paper investigates the properties and design of energy conversion in an electric vehicle (EV) powertrain. Here, we combined the dynamics of vehicle motion with controlled electric propulsion, which is an EV powertrain. The control of two types of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) was considered. An algorithm was developed for the determination of the static characteristics of two-region motor torque control. A constant torque and a constant power region were used in the powertrain of the EV. The design of the control system for the PMSM was considered in the

d, q

reference frame. A precise mechanical model of the EV and the determination of road loads is shown. The main results of this study were the selection of the PI controller parameters (in analytical form), which was carried out for the simplified motor model and then extended for the

d, q

model, and energy consumption during the WLTP standard driving cycle. The presented simulation results of the proposed control system with synchronous motors in the EV (Fisker Karma as an example) confirmed the approach taken for the selection of the controller. The presentation of the EV’s acceleration for an optimized powertrain, and hence its performance, is a novelty not found in other articles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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28 pages, 7409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Experimental Implementation of Active Tilt Control System Using a Servo Motor Actuator for Narrow Tilting Electric Vehicle

by Mustafa Karamuk and Orhan Behic Alankus

Energies 2022, 15(6), 1996; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15061996 - 09 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3508

Abstract

Light electric vehicles are alternative solutions to passenger cars in terms their lower costs and space saving in city traffic. Narrow tilting vehicles (NTV), known also as three–wheeled vehicles, can be equipped with an active tilting stability controller that tilts the vehicle automatically during cornering to enable lateral stability. There are mainly direct tilt control (DTC), steering tilt control (STC), and combined DTC–STC methods described in the literature. The DTC method is typically applied up to 10 km/h vehicle speeds. Considering city traffic and frequent start–stop cycles, the DTC method needs to be improved in terms of lower actuator torque and energy consumption. DTC can be designed by using either hydraulic or servo motor actuators. In state of the art, the servo motor actuator has not been studied in detail considering its integration and application aspects. Mostly, the actuator has been considered as a black box model. Proposed control method in this study enables improvements in the direct tilt control system (DTC) in terms of reducing the actuator peak torque and enables the application of DTC at higher vehicle speeds. Regarding the modeling of the electric actuator, a permanent magnet synchronous motor and field-oriented control model are also included in the simulation model. Modelling of the electric actuator enables accurate representation of actuator dynamics. In this way, battery Ah capacity can be sized and energy consumption of the electric actuator can be calculated for a given drive cycle. To this end, objective of this study is to design a direct tilt control method including the electrical drives and motion control concepts. In this way, an application methodology of the servo motor actuator is developed and implemented on a narrow tilting three-wheeled electric vehicle. Interactions between tilt control system and the servo motor actuator system are described from practical aspects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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25 pages, 5759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Research Platform for Fundamental and Empirical Modeling and Analysis of Energy Management of Shared Electric Vehicles

by Martin Koreny, Petr Simonik, Tomas Klein, Tomas Mrovec and Joy Jason Ligori

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1300; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15041300 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1553

Abstract

This article presents the results of the development of a hybrid research platform for fundamental and empirical modeling and analysis of energy management of shared electric vehicles. The article describes the hybrid model and its specific features in detail. Within the model architecture, a part of the fundamental model, empirical model and data collection tools were interconnected. The uniqueness lies in the models of electric cars created for a specific vehicle using cost-optimal parameterizations, as well as the implementation of a cloud solution, which is based on custom data communication, custom data logger and cost-optimized parameterization of machine learning algorithms. Experimental verification was performed on a real electric car in public traffic. The car is part of casharing platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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16 pages, 4111 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time-Domain Circuit Modelling for Hybrid Supercapacitors

by Fabio Corti, Michelangelo-Santo Gulino, Maurizio Laschi, Gabriele Maria Lozito, Luca Pugi, Alberto Reatti and Dario Vangi

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6837; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14206837 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 2037

Abstract

Classic circuit modeling for supercapacitors is limited in representing the strongly non-linear behavior of the hybrid supercapacitor technology. In this work, two novel modeling techniques suitable to represent the time-domain electrical behavior of a hybrid supercapacitor are presented. The first technique enhances a well-affirmed circuit model by introducing specific non-linearities. The second technique models the device through a black-box approach with a neural network. Both the modeling techniques are validated experimentally using a workbench to acquire data from a real hybrid supercapacitor. The proposed models, suitable for different supercapacitor technologies, achieve higher accuracy and generalization capabilities compared to those already presented in the literature. Both modeling techniques allow for an accurate representation of both short-time domain and steady-state simulations, providing a valuable asset in electrical designs featuring supercapacitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Power Train, Storage and Charging: Design, Modelling and Simulation)

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