Submit to Nutrients Review for Nutrients Propose a Special Issue

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser

The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions

Print Special Issue Flyer
Special Issue Editors
Special Issue Information
Published Papers

A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Clinical Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 April 2022) | Viewed by 56029

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Andrea P. Rossi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Medicine, Section of Geriatrics, Healthy Aging Center, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
Interests: body composition; sarcopenia; malnutrition; ectopic fat deposition
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Marwan El Ghoch

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Beirut Arab University, P.O. Box 11-5020 Riad El Solh, Beirut 11072809, Lebanon
Interests: clinical nutrition; obesity; sarcopenic obesity; type 2 diabetes; eating disorders; weight-related diseases; body composition; weight cycling; physical activity; energy expenditure
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the first epidemiological studies on COVID-19, obesity was identified as a major risk factor for poor prognosis, with an increased risk of intensive care admissions and mechanical ventilation, but also of adverse cardiovascular events.

Additionally, body fat distribution and visceral adipose tissue, in particular, could predict intensive care admission and unfavorable health outcomes.

There is limited knowledge regarding the best nutritional approach to prevent SARS-COV2 infection to support patients during their hospital stay and to amend established protocols for severely ill post-COVID rehabilitation. However, nutritional therapy could be one of the first-line treatments and knowledge of this area should be implemented in different settings.

A well-balanced diet including optimal intake of all macro and micronutrients plays a crucial role in immune system modulation in order to prevent SARS-COV2 infection.

Critically ill patients with COVID-19 are at high nutritional risk due to the critical illness itself, its medical management, and protein catabolism characterized by hyper metabolism.

Few guidelines are available in the case of critically ill patients for their nutritional management, but evidence regarding both in- and outpatient management and controlled clinical trials are still lacking.

This collection aims to explore the relationship between nutrition, body composition, the immune system, and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Prof. Dr. Andrea Rossi
Prof. Dr. Marwan El Ghoch
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Nutrients is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (10 papers)

Download All Papers

Research

Jump to: Review

14 pages, 1750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modifications of Chest CT Body Composition Parameters at Three and Six Months after Severe COVID-19 Pneumonia: A Retrospective Cohort Study

by Giulia Besutti, Massimo Pellegrini, Marta Ottone, Efrem Bonelli, Filippo Monelli, Roberto Farì, Jovana Milic, Giovanni Dolci, Tommaso Fasano, Simone Canovi, Stefania Costi, Stefania Fugazzaro, Marco Massari, Guido Ligabue, Stefania Croci, Carlo Salvarani, Pierpaolo Pattacini, Giovanni Guaraldi and Paolo Giorgi Rossi

Nutrients 2022, 14(18), 3764; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14183764 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1564

Abstract

We aimed to describe body composition changes up to 6–7 months after severe COVID-19 and to evaluate their association with COVID-19 inflammatory burden, described by the integral of the C-reactive protein (CRP) curve. The pectoral muscle area (PMA) and density (PMD), liver-to-spleen (L/S) ratio, and total, visceral, and intermuscular adipose tissue areas (TAT, VAT, and IMAT) were measured at baseline (T0), 2–3 months (T1), and 6–7 months (T2) follow-up CT scans of severe COVID-19 pneumonia survivors. Among the 208 included patients (mean age 65.6 ± 11 years, 31.3% females), decreases in PMA [mean (95%CI) −1.11 (−1.72; −0.51) cm²] and in body fat areas were observed [−3.13 (−10.79; +4.52) cm² for TAT], larger from T0 to T1 than from T1 to T2. PMD increased only from T1 to T2 [+3.07 (+2.08; +4.06) HU]. Mean decreases were more evident for VAT [−3.55 (−4.94; −2.17) cm²] and steatosis [L/S ratio increase +0.17 (+0.13; +0.20)] than for TAT. In multivariable models adjusted by age, sex, and baseline TAT, increasing the CRP interval was associated with greater PMA reductions, smaller PMD increases, and greater VAT and steatosis decreases, but it was not associated with TAT decreases. In conclusion, muscle loss and fat loss (more apparent in visceral compartments) continue until 6–7 months after COVID-19. The inflammatory burden is associated with skeletal muscle loss and visceral/liver fat loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vitamin D Status and Mortality from SARS CoV-2: A Prospective Study of Unvaccinated Caucasian Adults

by Robert Barrett, Modar Youssef, Irfan Shah, Julia Ioana, Abdullah Al Lawati, Abdullah Bukhari, Suzanne Hegarty, Liam J. Cormican, Eoin Judge, Conor M. Burke, Catriona Cody, Joseph Feely, Katrina Hutchinson, William Tormey, Eoghan O’ Neill, Aoife O’ Shea, Meabh Connolly, Daniel M. A. McCartney and John L. Faul

Nutrients 2022, 14(16), 3252; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14163252 - 09 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4559

Abstract

COVID-19 and a low vitamin D state share common risk factors, which might explain why vitamin D deficiency has been linked with higher COVID-19 mortality. Moreover, measures of serum vitamin D may become lower during systemic inflammatory responses, further confounding the association via reverse causality. In this prospective study (recruited over 12 months), we examined whether the association between a low vitamin D state and in-hospital mortality due to SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in unvaccinated subjects is explained by (i) the presence of shared risk factors (e.g., obesity, advanced age) or (ii) a reduction in serum 25(OH)D due to COVID-19 (i.e., reverse causality). In this cohort of 232 (mean age = 56 years) patients (all had SARS-CoV-2 diagnosed via PCR AND required supplemental oxygen therapy), we failed to find an association between serum vitamin D and levels of CRP, or other inflammatory markers. However, the hazard ratio for mortality for subjects over 70 years of age (13.2) and for subjects with a serum 25(OH)D level less than 30 nmol·L⁻¹ (4.6) remained significantly elevated even after adjustment for gender, obesity and the presence of diabetes mellitus. Subjects <70 years and >70 years had significantly higher mortality with a serum 25(OH)D less than 30 nmol·L⁻¹ (11.8% and 55%), than with a serum 25(OH)D greater than 30 nmol·L⁻¹ (2.2% and 25%). Unvaccinated Caucasian adults with a low vitamin D state have higher mortality due to SARS CoV-2 pneumonia, which is not explained by confounders and is not closely linked with elevated serum CRP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of the COVID-19 Epidemic on the Mood and Diet of Patients Undergoing Bariatric Surgery

by Iwona Boniecka, Aneta Czerwonogrodzka-Senczyna, Marzena Sekuła, Piotr Zawodny, Marcin Szemitko, Magdalena Sieńko and Jerzy Sieńko

Nutrients 2022, 14(14), 2849; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14142849 - 12 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1487

Abstract

Limited social contacts, lack of professional activities, economic insecurity, and a sense of threat, as well as boredom during the COVID-19 pandemic, contributed to tension and stress. All of these increase the risk of an inappropriate diet. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mood and nutrition of patients undergoing bariatric surgery. A group of 312 patients (both before and after bariatric surgery) completed a questionnaire about their diet and mood during COVID-19 lockdown. About 70% of all respondents reacted to the epidemiological situation: irritability, anxiety about their own health, and eating without being hungry. A total of 74% of all of the subjects snacked between meals (especially sweets). The respondents who believed that obesity and its complications had a negative impact on the prognosis of the coronavirus infection had a statistically significant higher prevalence of health anxiety, feeling that important life issues were out of control, irritability, need for psychological support, and need for dietary consultation. Patients after bariatric surgery had e.g., a statistically significant lower incidence of feeling hungry, eating after meals, and eating fatty foods. The COVID-19 pandemic has been shown to negatively affect the mood and diet of bariatric patients, which may affect their health status and worsen the prognosis of COVID-19. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

13 pages, 272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of an Intensive Rehabilitation Program on the Nutritional and Functional Status of Post-COVID-19 Pneumonia Patients

by Diogo Sousa-Catita, Catarina Godinho, Paulo Mascarenhas, Filipa Quaresma and Jorge Fonseca

Nutrients 2022, 14(12), 2501; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14122501 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1724

Abstract

Most hospitalized COVID-19 pneumonia patients are older adults and/or have nutrition-related issues. Many are bedridden in intensive care units (ICU), a well-documented cause of malnutrition, muscle wasting, and functional impairment. Objectives: To assess the effectiveness of an intensive rehabilitation program over the nutritional/functional status of patients recovering from COVID-19 pneumonia. Post-COVID-19 pneumonia patients underwent a 30-day intensive interdisciplinary rehabilitation program including a personalized nutritional intervention designed to achieve a minimum intake of 30 kcal/kg/day and 1 g protein/kg/day. The nutritional and functional status was assessed in each patient at three different moments. Each assessment included Body Mass Index (BMI), Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC), Mid Arm Muscle Circumference (MAMC), Tricipital Skinfold (TSF), Hand Grip Strength (HGS), and Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA^®). The study included 118 patients, with ages in the range 41–90 years old. BMI increased linearly over time (0.642 units, F-test = 26.458, p < 0.001). MUAC (0.322 units, F-test = 0.515, p = 0.474) and MAMC status (F-test = 1.089, p = 0.299) improved slightly, whereas TSF decreased (F-test = 1.885, p = 0.172), but all these arm anthropometry trends did not show significant variations, while HGS (4.131 units, F-test = 82.540, p < 0.001) and MNA^® (1.483 units, F-test = 217.726, p < 0.001) reported a meaningful improvement. Post-COVID-19 pneumonia patients presented malnutrition and functional impairment. An interdisciplinary rehabilitation program, including personalized nutritional intervention, was effective for post-hospital COVID-19 pneumonia nutritional/functional rehabilitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

12 pages, 1088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Significantly Reduced Retinol Binding Protein 4 (RBP4) Levels in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients

by Richard Vollenberg, Phil-Robin Tepasse, Manfred Fobker and Anna Hüsing-Kabar

Nutrients 2022, 14(10), 2007; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14102007 - 10 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2404

Abstract

The SARS-CoV-2 virus is the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. The disease causes respiratory failure in some individuals accompanied by marked hyperinflammation. Vitamin A (syn. retinol) can exist in the body in the storage form as retinyl ester, or in the transcriptionally active form as retinoic acid. The main function of retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4), synthesized in the liver, is to transport hydrophobic vitamin A to various tissues. Vitamin A has an important role in the innate and acquired immune system. In particular, it is involved in the repair of lung tissue after infections. In viral respiratory diseases such as influenza pneumonia, vitamin A supplementation has been shown to reduce mortality in animal models. In critically ill COVID-19 patients, a significant decrease in plasma vitamin A levels and an association with increased mortality have been observed. However, there is no evidence on RBP4 in relation to COVID-19. This prospective, multicenter, observational, cross-sectional study examined RBP4 (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and vitamin A plasma levels (high-performance liquid chromatography) in COVID-19 patients, including 59 hospitalized patients. Of these, 19 developed critical illness (ARDS/ECMO), 20 developed severe illness (oxygenation disorder), and 20 developed moderate illness (no oxygenation disorder). Twenty age-matched convalescent patients following SARS-CoV-2 infection, were used as a control group. Reduced RBP4 plasma levels significantly correlated with impaired liver function and elevated inflammatory markers (CRP, lymphocytopenia). RBP4 levels were decreased in hospitalized patients with critical illness compared to nonpatients (p < 0.01). In comparison, significantly lower vitamin A levels were detected in hospitalized patients regardless of disease severity. Overall, we conclude that RBP4 plasma levels are significantly reduced in critically ill COVID-19 patients during acute inflammation, and vitamin A levels are significantly reduced in patients with moderate/severe/critical illness during the acute phase of illness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Telenutrition: Changes in Professional Practice and in the Nutritional Assessments of Italian Dietitian Nutritionists in the COVID-19 Era

by Patrizia Gnagnarella, Yvelise Ferro, Taira Monge, Ersilia Troiano, Tiziana Montalcini, Arturo Pujia and Elisa Mazza

Nutrients 2022, 14(7), 1359; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14071359 - 24 Mar 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3523

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about various restrictions around the world, and its impact on healthcare has been enormous: RDNs have had to shift from in-person interactions with clients to telenutrition consultations, encountering obstacles. We designed the first survey to investigate the changes in RDN practices related to telenutrition provision after the onset of the pandemic through an online survey in Italy. Four hundred and thirty-six responses were analyzed. Before the pandemic, only 16% of Italian RDNs provided telenutrition; this percentage increased significantly up to 63% (p < 0.001). Among patients, the lack of interest in accessing telenutrition (30.9%) and the Internet (16.7%) were the most frequently reported barriers. Among RDNs, one of the main obstacles was their inability to conduct nutritional evaluation or monitoring activities (24.4%). Our survey indicated that increased adoption of telenutrition can be a valid, safe alternative to face-to-face visits. Telenutrition was mainly used by young RDNs (20–39 years) with fewer years of professional experience (0–20 years) and master’s degrees. Remote nutrition can enable RDNs to maintain normal workloads and provide patients with uninterrupted access to nutritional healthcare. It is important that RDNs using telemedicine resources possess the ability to provide high-quality, efficient, and secure services using evidence-based guidance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 2924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Whey Proteins on Malnutrition and Extubating Time of Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients

by Marialaura Scarcella, Emidio Scarpellini, Alessandra Ascani, Rita Commissari, Claudia Scorcella, Michela Zanetti, Amilcare Parisi, Riccardo Monti, Natasa Milic, Abele Donati, Francesco Luzza, Edoardo De Robertis and Ludovico Abenavoli

Nutrients 2022, 14(3), 437; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14030437 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3576

Abstract

The novel SARS-CoV-2 virus has led to a severe pandemic, starting from early 2020. Intensive care (ICU) management of the COVID-19 disease is difficult with high morbidity and mortality. Early nutritional support, especially with whey protein, seems to be crucial in this medical case. Thus, we aimed to assess the effects of an adequate nutritional protocol rich in whey protein on nutritional and inflammatory status, extubating time, and mortality of critically ill COVID-19 patients (CICP). Methods: A prospective single-center exploratory observational study was undertaken on 32 consecutive CICP admitted to the ICU of Santa Maria Hospital, Terni, Italy, and treated with whey protein-enriched formula. Patients’ demographics, nutritional status, indexes of inflammation, daily pre-albumin serum levels, duration of mechanical ventilation, and mortality were recorded. Results: Thirty-two patients were enrolled. Ninety-five percent of them showed a gradual reduction in C-reactive protein (CRP) values and increase in pre-albumin levels after the whey protein-enriched formula. Prealbumin levels were not correlated with a better nutritional status but with a shorter extubating time and better survival. Conclusions: An adequate administration of whey protein during COVID-19 patients’ ICU stays can provide fast achievement of protein targets, reducing the duration of mechanical ventilation, and improving inflammatory status and ICU survival. Further prospective and large-scale, controlled studies are needed to confirm these results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Research

15 pages, 2118 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Obesity, Body Composition, and Nutrition in COVID-19 Pandemia: A Narrative Review

by Andrea P. Rossi, Valentina Muollo, Zeno Dalla Valle, Silvia Urbani, Massimo Pellegrini, Marwan El Ghoch and Gloria Mazzali

Nutrients 2022, 14(17), 3493; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14173493 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3188

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has spread worldwide, infecting nearly 500 million people, with more than 6 million deaths recorded globally. Obesity leads people to be more vulnerable, developing worse outcomes that can require hospitalization in intensive care units (ICU). This review focused on the available findings that investigated the link between COVID-19, body composition, and nutritional status. Most studies showed that not only body fat quantity but also its distribution seems to play a crucial role in COVID-19 severity. Compared to the body mass index (BMI), visceral adipose tissue and intrathoracic fat are better predictors of COVID-19 severity and indicate the need for hospitalization in ICU and invasive mechanical ventilation. High volumes of epicardial adipose tissue and its thickness can cause an infection located in the myocardial tissue, thereby enhancing severe COVID-related myocardial damage with impairments in coronary flow reserve and thromboembolism. Other important components such as sarcopenia and intermuscular fat augment the vulnerability in contracting COVID-19 and increase mortality, inflammation, and muscle damage. Malnutrition is prevalent in this population, but a lack of knowledge remains regarding the beneficial effects aimed at optimizing nutritional status to limit catabolism and preserve muscle mass. Finally, with the increase in patients recovering from COVID-19, evaluation and treatment in those with Long COVID syndrome may become highly relevant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1343 KiB

Open AccessReview

Dietary Recommendations for Post-COVID-19 Syndrome

by Luigi Barrea, William B. Grant, Evelyn Frias-Toral, Claudia Vetrani, Ludovica Verde, Giulia de Alteriis, Annamaria Docimo, Silvia Savastano, Annamaria Colao and Giovanna Muscogiuri

Nutrients 2022, 14(6), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14061305 - 20 Mar 2022

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 28191

Abstract

At the beginning of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, global efforts focused on containing the spread of the virus and avoiding contagion. Currently, it is evident that health professionals should deal with the overall health status of COVID-19 survivors. Indeed, novel findings have identified post-COVID-19 syndrome, which is characterized by malnutrition, loss of fat-free mass, and low-grade inflammation. In addition, the recovery might be complicated by persistent functional impairment (i.e., fatigue and muscle weakness, dysphagia, appetite loss, and taste/smell alterations) as well as psychological distress. Therefore, the appropriate evaluation of nutritional status (assessment of dietary intake, anthropometrics, and body composition) is one of the pillars in the management of these patients. On the other hand, personalized dietary recommendations represent the best strategy to ensure recovery. Therefore, this review aimed to collect available evidence on the role of nutrients and their supplementation in post-COVID-19 syndrome to provide a practical guideline to nutritionists to tailor dietary interventions for patients recovering from COVID-19 infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 8344 KiB

Open AccessReview

Development of Therapeutic and Prophylactic Zinc Compositions for Use against COVID-19: A Glimpse of the Trends, Inventions, and Patents

by Mohd Imran, Waseem Fatima, A. Khuzaim Alzahrani, Nida Suhail, Mohammed Kanan Alshammari, Abdulrahman A. Alghitran, Fayez Nafea Alshammari, Mohammed M. Ghoneim, Sultan Alshehri and Faiyaz Shakeel

Nutrients 2022, 14(6), 1227; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14061227 - 14 Mar 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3654

Abstract

Zinc is an essential nutrient for human health; it is involved in the catalytic, structural, and regulatory functions of the human cellular system. Different compositions of zinc, as well as its pharmaceutically acceptable salts, are available on the market. Recent studies have demonstrated the role of zinc in combating COVID-19. It has been determined that zinc prevents the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into cells by lowering the expression of ACE-2 receptors and inhibiting the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of SARS-CoV-2. Zinc also prevents the cytokine storm that takes place after the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the cell, via its anti-inflammatory activity. The authors believe that no study has yet been published that has reviewed the trends, inventions, and patent literature of zinc compositions to treat/prevent COVID-19. Accordingly, this review has been written in order to fill this gap in the literature. The information about the clinical studies and the published patents/patent applications was retrieved from different databases. This review covers patent literature on zinc compositions up to 31 January 2022. Many important patents/patent applications for zinc-based compositions filed by innovative universities and industries were identified. The patent literature revealed zinc compositions in combination with zinc ionophores, antioxidants, antivirals, antibiotics, hydroxychloroquine, heparin, ivermectin, and copper. Most of these studies were supported by clinical trials. The patent literature supports the potential of zinc and its pharmaceutical compositions as possible treatments for COVID-19. The authors believe that countless zinc-based compositions are still unexplored, and there is an immense opportunity to evaluate a considerable number of the zinc-based compositions for use against COVID-19. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

The Role of Nutrition before, during and after COVID-19: Assessment, Management and Possible Interventions

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Published Papers (10 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI