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Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2023) | Viewed by 28395

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Dr. Iolanda Francolini

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Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P. le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: polymer characterization; structure–properties relationships; antimicrobial polymers; polyurethanes; drug delivery systems; functionalization of polymers; microbial biofilms; nanocomposites
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Dr. Antonella Piozzi

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Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P. le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: polymer characterization; structure–properties relationships; antimicrobial polymers; drug delivery systems; functionalization of polymers; microbial biofilms; tissue engineering; nanocomposites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The COVID-19 emergency is forcing the scientific community to face new challenges and opportunities in various research sectors, including that concerning the development of new materials able to inhibit the adherence of microbials and viruses to surfaces to reduce the risk of spread. For example, microorganism spreading in a healthcare environment is mainly due to infections deriving from touching infected surfaces (i.e., personal protective equipment and surfaces in plastic or wood of all kinds). This type of infections, along with the resistance of several microorganisms to the actual classes of antimicrobials, provokes significant morbidity and mortality. In this context, the scholars are called upon to propose smart technological solutions that take into account the need for using different types of surfaces at risk of contamination to face this important global challenge. Polymers have received considerable attention in both academic and industrial research thanks to their versatility in terms of being designed and synthesized for specific applications. Indeed, their structure and physicochemical properties (i.e., molecular weight, architecture, hydrophilicity, molecular arrangement) can be important features to determine the potential application of polymers in different fields, such as medical, food, environment, and textile. Polymers therefore represent a promising class of materials for fighting different pathogens and emergence of antimicrobial-resistant strains.

We are particularly interested in manuscripts that report on polymers designed and fabricated for fighting microbial and viral infections of medical devices, packaging and textile materials, and water purification systems.

Potential topics include but are not limited to:

Antimicrobial/antiviral polymers for medical devices;
Antimicrobial/antiviral polymers for food packaging;
Polymers made antimicrobial/antiviral by metal loading;
Release of antimicrobial/antiviral agents from polymers;
Biomimetic polymers;
Antifouling polymers.

Dr. Iolanda Francolini
Dr. Antonella Piozzi
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 10909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Antifouling Coatings Based on Quaternary Ammonium Compounds through a Multilayer Approach

by Denisa Druvari, Georgia C. Lainioti, Vlasoula Bekiari, Pavlos Avramidis, Joannis K. Kallitsis and Georgios Bokias

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(7), 6594; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24076594 - 01 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1604

Abstract

The development of polymeric materials as antifouling coatings for aquaculture nets is elaborated in the present work. In this context, cross-linked polymeric systems based on quaternary ammonium compounds (immobilized or releasable) prepared under mild aqueous conditions were introduced as a more environmentally friendly methodology for coating nets on a large scale. To optimize the duration of action of the coatings, a multilayer coating method was applied by combining the antimicrobial organo-soluble copolymer poly(cetyltrimethylammonium 4-styrenesulfonate-co-glycidyl methacrylate) [P(SSAmC₁₆-co-GMA20)] as the first layer with either the water-soluble copolymer poly(vinylbenzyl trimethylammonium chloride-co-acrylic acid) [P(VBCTMAM-co-AA20)] or the water-soluble polymers poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and poly(hexamethylene guanidine), PHMG, as the second layer. The above-mentioned approach, followed by thermal cross-linking of the polymeric coatings, resulted in stable materials with controlled release of the biocidal species. The coated nets were studied in terms of their antifouling efficiency under accelerated biofouling conditions as well as under real conditions in an aquaculture field. Resistance to biofouling after three water-nutrient replenishments was observed under laboratory accelerated biofouling conditions. In addition, at the end of the field test (day 23) the uncoated nets were completely covered by marine contaminants, while the coated nets remained intact over most of their extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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13 pages, 4059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dual-Crosslinked Hydrogel Based on Gelatin Methacryloyl and Sulfhydrylated Chitosan for Promoting Wound Healing

by Shunxian Ji, Yushuang Zhao, Xinrang Zhai, Lu Wang, Huali Luo, Zhiyong Xu, Wei Dong, Bingbing Wu and Wei Wei

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(3), 2447; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24032447 - 26 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2408

Abstract

The skin is the largest organ of the human body. Skin injuries, especially full-thickness injuries, are a major treatment challenge in clinical practice. Therefore, wound dressing materials with therapeutic effects have great practical significance in healthcare. This study used photocrosslinkable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) and sulfhydrylated chitosan (CS-SH) to design a double-crosslinked hydrogel for wound dressing. When crosslinked together, the resulting hydrogels showed a highly porous inner structure, and enhanced mechanical properties and moisture retention capacity. The compression modulus of the GelMA/CS-SH hydrogel (GCH) reached up to about 40 kPa and was much higher than that of pure GelMA hydrogel, and the compression modulus was increased with the amount of CS-SH. In vitro study showed no cytotoxicity of obtained hydrogels. Interestingly, a higher concentration of CS-SH slightly promoted the proliferation of cells. Moreover, the double-crosslinked hydrogel exhibited antibacterial properties because of the presence of chitosan. In vivo study based on rats showed that full-thickness skin defects healed on the 15th day. Histological results indicate that the hydrogel accelerated the repair of hair follicles and encouraged the orderly growth of collagen fibers in the wound. Furthermore, better blood vessel formation and a higher expression of VEGFR were observed in the hydrogel group when compared with the untreated control group. Based on our findings, GCH could be a promising candidate for full-thickness wound dressing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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11 pages, 2345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Marine Collagen-Based Antibacterial Film Reinforced with Graphene and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

by Johar Amin Ahmed Abdullah, Emre Yemişken, Antonio Guerrero and Alberto Romero

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(1), 648; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24010648 - 30 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1575

Abstract

It has become more widely available to use biopolymer-based films as alternatives to conventional plastic-based films due to their non-toxic properties, flexibility, and affordability. However, they are limited in application due to deficiencies in their properties. The marine collagen was the specimen for the present study. Thus, the main objective was to reinforce marine collagen-based films with 1.0% (w/w of the dry polymer weight) of iron oxide nanoparticles (IO-NPs), graphene oxide nanoparticles (GO-NPs), or a combination of both oxides (GO-NPs/IO-NPs) as antibacterial and antioxidant additives to overcome some of the limitations of the film. In this way, the nanoparticles were incorporated into the film-forming solution (2% w/v in acetic acid, 0.05 M) and processed by casting. Thereafter, the films were dried and analyzed for their physicochemical, mechanical, microstructural, and functional properties. The results show that the effective combination of GO-NPs/IO-NPs enhanced the physicochemical properties by increasing the water contact angle (WCA) of the films from 77.2 to 84.4° and their transparency (T) from 0.5 to 5.2. Furthermore, these nanoparticles added antioxidant and antibacterial value to the films, with free radical inhibition of up to 95.8% and 23.8 mm of bacteria growth inhibition (diameter). As a result, both types of nanoparticles are proposed as suitable additives to be incorporated into films and enhance their different properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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17 pages, 2872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

eDNA, Amyloid Fibers and Membrane Vesicles Identified in Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 Biofilms

by Olena V. Moshynets, Ianina Pokholenko, Olga Iungin, Geert Potters and Andrew J. Spiers

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(23), 15096; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms232315096 - 01 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2009

Abstract

Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 is a model soil- and plant-associated bacterium capable of forming a variety of air–liquid interface biofilms in experimental microcosms and on plant surfaces. Previous investigations have shown that cellulose is the primary structural matrix component in the robust and well-attached Wrinkly Spreader biofilm, as well as in the fragile Viscous Mass biofilm. Here, we demonstrate that both biofilms include extracellular DNA (eDNA) which can be visualized using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), quantified by absorbance measurements, and degraded by DNase I treatment. This eDNA plays an important role in cell attachment and biofilm development. However, exogenous high-molecular-weight DNA appears to decrease the strength and attachment levels of mature Wrinkly Spreader biofilms, whereas low-molecular-weight DNA appears to have little effect. Further investigation with CLSM using an amyloid-specific fluorophore suggests that the Wrinkly Spreader biofilm might also include Fap fibers, which might be involved in attachment and contribute to biofilm strength. The robust nature of the Wrinkly Spreader biofilm also allowed us, using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, to identify matrix-associated proteins unable to diffuse out of the structure, as well as membrane vesicles which had a different protein profile compared to the matrix-associated proteins. CLSM and DNase I treatment suggest that some vesicles were also associated with eDNA. These findings add to our understanding of the matrix components in this model pseudomonad, and, as found in other biofilms, biofilm-specific products and material from lysed cells contribute to these structures through a range of complex interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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14 pages, 2135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyglycerol Adipate-Grafted Polycaprolactone Nanoparticles as Carriers for the Antimicrobial Compound Usnic Acid

by Vincenzo Taresco, Isotta Tulini, Iolanda Francolini and Antonella Piozzi

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(22), 14339; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms232214339 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1427

Abstract

Nanoparticle (NP) drug delivery systems are known to potentially enhance the efficacy of therapeutic agents. As for antimicrobial drugs, therapeutic solutions against drug-resistant microbes are urgently needed due to the worldwide antimicrobial resistance issue. Usnic acid is a widely investigated antimicrobial agent suffering from poor water solubility. In this study, polymer nanoparticles based on polyglycerol adipate (PGA) grafted with polycaprolactone (PCL) were developed as carriers for usnic acid. We demonstrated the potential of the developed systems in ensuring prolonged bactericidal activity against a model bacterial species, Staphylococcus epidermidis. The macromolecular architecture changes produced by PCL grafted from PGA significantly influenced the drug release profile and mechanism. Specifically, by varying the length of PCL arms linked to the PGA backbone, it was possible to tune the drug release from a burst anomalous drug release (high PCL chain length) to a slow diffusion-controlled release (low PCL chain length). The developed nanosystems showed a prolonged antimicrobial activity (up to at least 7 days) which could be used in preventing/treating infections occurring at different body sites, including medical device-related infection and mucosal/skin surface, where Gram-positive bacteria are commonly involved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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15 pages, 3283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Activity of Rose Bengal Entrapped in Organically Modified Silica Matrices

by Yanna Gurianov, Michael Meistelman, Yael Albo, Marina Nisnevitch and Faina Nakonechny

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(7), 3716; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23073716 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1763

Abstract

Photosensitizers (PSs) are known as powerful antibacterial agents that are activated by direct exposure to visible light. PSs can be noncovalently entrapped into the silica gel network for their controlled release into a contaminated area. The immobilization of PS-containing gel matrices on a polymer support expands their possible applications, such as antibacterial surfaces and coatings, which can be used for the disinfection of liquids. In the current study, we report the use of Rose Bengal (RB) incorporated into organically modified silica matrices (RB@ORMOSIL matrices) by the sol-gel technique. The RB matrices exhibit high activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria under illumination by white light. The amount and timing of solidifier addition to the matrix affected the interaction of the latter with the RB, which in turn could affect the antibacterial activity of RB. The most active specimen against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial cells was the RB6@ORMOSIL matrix immobilized on a linear low-density polyethylene surface, which was prepared by an easy, cost-effective, and simple thermal adhesion method. This specimen, RB6@OR@LLDPE, showed the low release of RB in an aqueous environment, and exhibited high long-term antibacterial activity in at least 14 rounds of recycled use against S. aureus and in 11 rounds against E. coli. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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20 pages, 8658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

eDNA Inactivation and Biofilm Inhibition by the PolymericBiocide Polyhexamethylene Guanidine Hydrochloride (PHMG-Cl)

by Olena V. Moshynets, Taras P. Baranovskyi, Olga S. Iungin, Nadiia P. Kysil, Larysa O. Metelytsia, Ianina Pokholenko, Viktoria V. Potochilova, Geert Potters, Kateryna L. Rudnieva, Svitlana Y. Rymar, Ivan V. Semenyuta, Andrew J. Spiers, Oksana P. Tarasyuk and Sergiy P. Rogalsky

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(2), 731; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23020731 - 10 Jan 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2963

Abstract

The choice of effective biocides used for routine hospital practice should consider the role of disinfectants in the maintenance and development of local resistome and how they might affect antibiotic resistance gene transfer within the hospital microbial population. Currently, there is little understanding of how different biocides contribute to eDNA release that may contribute to gene transfer and subsequent environmental retention. Here, we investigated how different biocides affect the release of eDNA from mature biofilms of two opportunistic model strains Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 (PA) and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 (SA) and contribute to the hospital resistome in the form of surface and water contaminants and dust particles. The effect of four groups of biocides, alcohols, hydrogen peroxide, quaternary ammonium compounds, and the polymeric biocide polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride (PHMG-Cl), was evaluated using PA and SA biofilms. Most biocides, except for PHMG-Cl and 70% ethanol, caused substantial eDNA release, and PHMG-Cl was found to block biofilm development when used at concentrations of 0.5% and 0.1%. This might be associated with the formation of DNA–PHMG-Cl complexes as PHMG-Cl is predicted to bind to AT base pairs by molecular docking assays. PHMG-Cl was found to bind high-molecular DNA and plasmid DNA and continued to inactivate DNA on surfaces even after 4 weeks. PHMG-Cl also effectively inactivated biofilm-associated antibiotic resistance gene eDNA released by a pan-drug-resistant Klebsiella strain, which demonstrates the potential of a polymeric biocide as a new surface-active agent to combat the spread of antibiotic resistance in hospital settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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16 pages, 3726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Antimicrobial Coatings from Cross-Linked Copolymers Containing Quaternary Dodecyl-Ammonium Compounds

by Denisa Druvari, Aggeliki Antonopoulou, Georgia C. Lainioti, Alexios Vlamis-Gardikas, Georgios Bokias and Joannis K. Kallitsis

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(24), 13236; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms222413236 - 08 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2341

Abstract

One of the concerns today’s societies face is the development of resistant pathogenic microorganisms. The need to tackle this problem has driven the development of innovative antimicrobial materials capable of killing or inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. The present study investigates the dependence of the antimicrobial activity and solubility properties on the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity ratio of antimicrobial coatings based on quaternary ammonium compounds. In this line, suitable hydrophilic and hydrophobic structural units were selected for synthesizing the antimicrobial copolymers poly(4-vinylbenzyl dimethyldodecylammonium chloride-co-acrylic acid), P(VBCDDA-co-AA20) and poly(dodecyltrimethylammonium 4-styrene sulfonate-co-glycidyl methacrylate), P(SSAmC₁₂-co-GMA20), bearing an alkyl chain of 12 carbons either through covalent bonding or through electrostatic interaction. The cross-linking reaction of the carboxylic group of acrylic acid (AA) with the epoxide group of glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) of these two series of reactive antimicrobial copolymers was explored in blends, obtained through solution casting after curing at various temperatures. The release of the final products in pure water and NaCl 1 M solutions (as analyzed by gravimetry and total organic carbon, TOC/total nitrogen, TN analyses), could be controlled by the coating composition. The cross-linked polymeric membranes of composition 60/40 w/w % ratios led to 97.8 and 99.7% mortality for Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), respectively, whereas the coating 20/80 w/w % resulted in 96.6 and 99.8% cell reduction. Despite the decrease in hydrophobicity (from a 16- to a 12-carbon alkyl chain), the new materials maintained the killing efficacy, while at the same time resulting in increased release to the aqueous solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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Review

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82 pages, 6173 KiB

Open AccessReview

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) and Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Biocides: From Simple Antiseptics to Tunable Antimicrobials

by Anatoly N. Vereshchagin, Nikita A. Frolov, Ksenia S. Egorova, Marina M. Seitkalieva and Valentine P. Ananikov

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(13), 6793; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22136793 - 24 Jun 2021

Cited by 116 | Viewed by 11288

Abstract

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) belong to a well-known class of cationic biocides with a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. They are used as essential components in surfactants, personal hygiene products, cosmetics, softeners, dyes, biological dyes, antiseptics, and disinfectants. Simple but varied in their structure, QACs are divided into several subclasses: Mono-, bis-, multi-, and poly-derivatives. Since the beginning of the 20th century, a significant amount of work has been dedicated to the advancement of this class of biocides. Thus, more than 700 articles on QACs were published only in 2020, according to the modern literature. The structural variability and diverse biological activity of ionic liquids (ILs) make them highly prospective for developing new types of biocides. QACs and ILs bear a common key element in the molecular structure–quaternary positively charged nitrogen atoms within a cyclic or acyclic structural framework. The state-of-the-art research level and paramount demand in modern society recall the rapid development of a new generation of tunable antimicrobials. This review focuses on the main QACs exhibiting antimicrobial and antifungal properties, commercial products based on QACs, and the latest discoveries in QACs and ILs connected with biocide development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Strategies for Fighting Microbial and Viral Infections)

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